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2.The verb be to is used to express official instructions, commands, orders with the non-perfect forms of the infinitive of the notional verb:

You are to cross the street under the green light. Students are to return the books by the end of the school year.

3.The verb be to is used in interrogative sentences to ask about a person’s order or wish:

What am I to do next?

How many times a day am I to take this medicine?

4. The verb be to is used in negative sentences to express strict prohibition:

You are not to leave the room without permission.

5. The verb be to followed by the non-perfect passive infinitive is used to express possibility:

Nothing was to be done under the circumstances. The key was nowhere to be found.

6. The verb be to followed by the non-perfect infinitive is used to express something thought of as unavoidable, something that is destined to happen:

He was never to see his native town again.

NEED

The verb need can be used both as a modal and as a notional verb. If it is used as a modal verb, the negative and interrogative forms of the present simple can be built with the help of the auxiliary do or without it; it can also take the ending ‘-s’ in the 3rd person singular:

You needn't do it. You don't need to do it. Need I come? Do I need to come?

She hardly needs to tell you about it, does she?

The modal verb need has the following meanings:

1. The verb need is mostly used to express the absence of necessity to fulfill the action of the notional verb. The indefinite infinitive of the notional verb is used:

She needn't hurry, there's plenty of time.

We don't need to go shopping now; there is enough food at home.

The modal verb need is seldom used in affirmative sentences, except with such adverbs as ‘hardly’, ‘scarcely’ which are half-negative in meaning:

He hardly needs to be helped.

I hardly need to explain anything.

When the verb need is used in affirmative sentences it refers to immediate necessities:

I’m hungry; I need to eat something immediately.

The past form negative of the verb need followed by the indefinite infinitive is used to express the absence of necessity in the past, implying that the action of the notional verb was not carried out:

They didn't need to buy anything (and they didn't buy anything).

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The present form negative of the verb need followed by the perfect infinitive is used to say that the action of the notional verb was performed though there was no necessity:

He needn't have come so early.

Note: In Modern English ‘didn't need + indefinite infinitive’ is sometimes used in oral speech to denote an action that was performed though it was not necessary (the verb need is stressed), while ‘didn't have to + indefinite infinitive’ is used to say that the action was not necessary and wasn't performed:

You didn’t need to water the flowers because the ground was wet enough. I didn’t have to water the flowers because it suddenly started raining.

2. In questions need is used to ask for permission not to do something and it is a replacement for must when a negative answer is expected:

Need I go? - No, I don't think so.

3. The verb need is used in negative sentences to express permission not to do something:

Must I learn it by heart? - No, you needn't. Just read it.

SHOULD, OUGHT (TO)

The modal verbs should and ought to are very close in meaning which can be characterized as advisability. They can express the following meanings.

1.The verbs should and ought to followed by a non-perfect infinitive are used to express the meaning of obligation or duty referring to the present or future (which may not be fulfilled):

Students should take their examinations twice a year. You ought to spend more time in the library.

2.They are used to express advice, which is a tactful way of giving command. Should means that someone should do something because it is morally right, fair or

honest; ought means that someone should do something because it is the best or the most sensible thing to do or because it is right.

Should usually expresses advice referring to the present, while ought expresses advice referring to the future:

You should be more attentive. You ought to call her and apologize.

The modal phrase “had better” is synonymous as it is used to tell somebody what you think they should do in a particular situation:

You’d better start working now, there isn’t much time left.

In the interrogative sentences these modal verbs have the meaning of “asking for advice or instruction”:

Should I call him now or later?

In this case the meaning of the verbs should and ought to is close to that of have to when it is used to express recommendation.

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The phrase be supposed to can be also used when we speak about a normal thing to do in some particular situation or normal behaviour:

How are we supposed to address this lady?

You are supposed to say “please” when you ask a favour.

3. The verbs should and ought are used in negative sentences to express a weakened prohibition, which sounds more like negative advice:

You shouldn't waste any more of your time. Children oughtn't to watch this kind of films.

4.The verbs should and ought to followed by perfect infinitives are used to express criticism of past actions or regret:

You should have let me know that you were going to be late. He oughtn't to have said that. I should have been more careful.

5.The verbs should and ought followed by indefinite infinitives are used to express probability when speaking about something that can be naturally expected. The action denoted by the infinitive refers to the present or future:

He should be easy to deal with. He looks so good-natured. Flowers ought to grow well there.

Who should it be?

When the perfect infinitive is used, it denotes something that could have been naturally expected in the past:

He should have won that prize but somehow it didn’t happen.

6. The verb should is used in why-questions to express emotional colouring:

Why should I do it instead of you?

If she wants to marry him, why shouldn't she?

7. The verb should can be also used in the following clauses:

a) in the object subordinate clauses after the verbs to demand, to recommend, to order, to suggest, to insist, etc.:

I suggest that you should go there immediately.

b)in the subject subordinate clauses after the expressions ‘it is necessary’, ‘it is proper’, ‘it is vital’, ‘it is normal’, etc.:

It is necessary that the books should be returned on time.

c)in the predicative clauses where the subject is expressed by the nouns order, demand, suggestion, wish, request, etc.:

My suggestion is that you should start working immediately.

d) in the conditional clauses referring to the future; in these clauses it expresses hypothetical possibility:

Should you meet her tonight, please ask her to call.

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WILL and WOULD

The verbs will and would usually express volition of the person expressed by the subject. The meaning of volition is realized as willingness or unwillingness of different degree.

When used with inanimate subjects they express possibility, impossibility or probability of the action expressed by the infinitive of the notional verb.

WILL

The modal verb will is followed by non-perfect infinitives without the particle ‘to’ and has the following meanings.

1. It is used to express volition or willingness in affirmative sentences:

I'll be waiting until you come.

When the verb will is used in subordinate clauses of condition it usually expresses this meaning:

I’ll go to the theatre if you will.

2. It is used to express refusal (unwillingness) in negative sentences:

I won't come each time you call me.

3.It is used to express persistence referring to the present or future and is pronounced with a strong stress. It can be used to describe someone's habits, especially when you find them strange:

She asked him to forget her, but he will come again and again. He will always leave without saying good-bye.

4.It is used in interrogative sentences to express request, offer, invitation:

Will you come, please?

Will you have some coffee with us?

To express request the verb will can be used in subordinate clauses of condition:

If you will make coffee I’ll have a cup with pleasure.

5. It is used to express one's intention when the speaker is definite about the fulfillment:

Wait for me. I will go too.

6. It is used to express possibility, in which case it is synonymous to the modal verb can:

The car will hold five people comfortably. We won’t enter – the door is locked.

7. With inanimate subjects it can express impossibility:

I try but the door won’t open.

8. It is used to express certainty as logical deduction, in which case it is synonymous to the modal verb must:

Who is knocking? - That will be Tom coming home now.

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WOULD

The modal verb would is followed by the indefinite infinitive without the particle ‘to’ and has the following meanings.

1. It is used to express volition and willingness:

She would help you eagerly. I said I would go to the museum too.

2. It is used to express a customary action in the past. In this case the verb would combines the modal meaning with that of an aspect verb:

Last summer they met again and would spend a lot of time together.

3. It is used to express a refusal in the past to perform an action:

We asked him to tell the truth, but he wouldn't.

4.It is used to express impossibility of fulfilling an action when talking about lifeless things:

I tried to open the door again and again, but it wouldn't.

5.It is used to express disapproval when talking about someone's annoying habits. Disapproval is the speaker’s attitude to the behaviour of the person expressed by the subject:

You would go and spoil everything, wouldn't you?

6.In spoken language it can be used to express advice:

I would phone John and explain everything (if I were you).

7. It is used to express polite requests, offers, and invitations:

Would you wait for me, please? Would you have lunch with us tomorrow?

To express request the verb would is often used in subordinate clauses of condition while the form of the subjunctive mood is used in the main clause:

We would be greatly obliged to you if you would help us.

8. The phrase “would rather” is used to show that you would rather do or have one thing than another:

I would rather have tea. I don't like the coffee here.

SHALL

The modal verb shall is always followed by the indefinite infinitive without the particle ‘to’. It can have the following meanings in a sentence:

1. The verb shall is used to express formal compulsion and obligation limited to official regulations. The use of the verb shall to express this meaning is mostly limited to legal texts, contracts, etc.:

The afore-said reservation shall be included by the Sellers in the collection statement.

If the verb shall is used in technical instruction it shows that the instruction should be followed obligatory and strictly:

The device shall be unplugged before cleaning.

2. It is used after the subject in the 2nd and 3rd person to express threat or warning:

He shall be punished.

In Modern English this use is old-fashioned and the verb will is used instead of shall.

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3. It can also express promise or determination with the subject in the 2nd and 3rd person, though in Modern English it sounds old-fashioned or formal:

You shall get what you want.

4.It is used in interrogative sentences with the subject in the 1st person to express suggestions, offers, asking for instruction:

Shall we wait for them a little more? Shall I open the window?

5.The phrase ‘We shall see’ is used when you don't know what will happen in the future or do not want to give a definite answer:

Let's have a picnic on Sunday. - We shall see.

DARE

The semi-modal verb dare is followed by the indefinite infinitive with or without the particle ‘to’.

1. The verb dare means to be brave enough to do something:

She wouldn't dare (to) enter this house again.

2. It is also used when the infinitive of the notional verb denotes something rude or shocking:

I wouldn't dare tell her this.

3. The phrase ‘How dare you’ is used in the spoken language to show that you are very angry:

How dare you accuse me of lying!

4. The phrase ‘Don't you dare’ is used in the spoken language to warn someone not to do something because it makes you angry:

Don't you dare talk to me like that!

5. The phrase ‘I dare say’ is used in the spoken language when one says or agrees that something may be true:

I dare say that things will improve.

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NON-FINITE FORMS

INFINITIVE

GENERAL NOTION

There are three non-finite forms of the verb or verbals in the English language – the Infinitive, the Participle and the Gerund. They developed from nominal parts of speech, gradually acquiring verbal features. Thus the Infinitive and Gerund developed from verbal nouns, while Participles developed from verbal adjectives.

They are called non-finite forms because they don’t express person, number or mood and cannot be used as a predicate. Like finite forms they have tense and voice distinctions, but their tense distinctions differ from those of a finite verb, as they do not refer an action or state to any particular time.

The marker of the infinitive is the particle ‘to’: to go, to write, though in certain cases the particle ‘to’ is not used.

FORMS OF THE INFINITIVE

The negative forms are made by putting the negative particle ‘not’ before the

Infinitive:

You are silly not to trust them.

ТHE USE OF ТHE INFINIТIVE WIТHOUT ТHE PARТICLE ‘ТО’

(BARE INFINIТIVE)

The particle ‘to’ is the marker of the Infinitive and in most cases the Infinitive is used with the particle ‘to’. However there are cases when the Infinitive is used without the particle ‘to’. The Infinitive without the particle ‘to’ is called ‘bare Infinitive’. There are also verbs after which the Infinitive can be used both with or without the particle ‘to’.

The bare Infinitive is used in the following cases:

1. After auxiliary verbs such as do, will, etc.:

He doesn’t like to speak about these things.

2. After modal verbs except the verb ought:

If you cannot have what you want, have what you can.

3. After verbs of sense perception such as see, hear, feel, etc. if the Infinitive is а part of the Objective-with-the-Infinitive construction:

We saw him enter the room.

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4. After the verb let if the Infinitive is а part of the Objective-with-the-Infinitive construction:

Let him say it.

5. After the verbs make and have in the meaning “заставлять” if the Infinitive is а part of the Objective-with-the-Infinitive construction:

We made him come on time. They had her decorate the house.

Note: When the verbs see, hear, feel, let, make have passive forms, the

Infinitive is used with the particle ‘to’:

He was seen to enter the house. They were made to accept the plan.

6. After the expressions had better, would rather, would sooner, rather than, cannot but, nothing but:

She had better see а doctor if it gets any worse.

Which would you rather do, go to the cinema or stay here?

I’d sooner die than marry you!

Rather than cook dinner why don’t we finish what we have?

One cannot but admire her determination. There is nothing left for us to do but go there.

7. After the verb bid both the bare Infinitive and the Infinitive with the particle ‘to’ can be used:

The queen bade us (to) enter.

8. After the verb help the Infinitive can be used either with or without the particle ‘to’:

Can you help me (to) understand what is going on here?

9. In suggestions beginning with why:

Why not make your own Christmas cards? Why argue about it now?

Questions in which why is followed by the affirmative Infinitive are used to suggest that the action is not necessary.

10. In sentences where the Infinitive phrase is used as predicative to emphasize the idea:

What we should do is try to explain it to him. The thing to do now is find a hotel to stay at.

11. When two infinitives or infinitive phrases are joined by and, or, but, than, as, the second Infinitive is often used without ‘to’:

I’d like to go and tell him the truth.

Do you want to eat now or wait for Mary? I agree to do anything but wash the dishes.

It’s better to call him now than wait for his call.

Is it as interesting to see a movie as read a book?

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SYNTACTIC FUNCТIONS OF ТHE INFINIТIVE IN A SENTENCE

The Infinitive can be used in different syntactic functions. In most cases it takes an object or is modified by an adverb and forms an Infinitive phrase which performs a syntactic function.

1. Subject. Non-perfect infinitives are more common in this function.

To tell her the details is not necessary.

The subject expressed by the Infinitive can be introduced by the introductory (anticipatory) it:

It is not necessary to tell her the details.

It takes me a couple of hours to cook this dish.

2. Predicative. Non-perfect infinitives are used in this function.

Her job was to bring the mail. Her wish is to be left alone.

3.Secondary Predicative. The Infinitive can be a secondary predicative when it is used as a part of the predicative after the adjectives nice, hard, pleasant, interesting, easy, impossible, and others of the kind. The peculiarity of these sentences is that the subject of the sentence is the object of the action expressed by the Infinitive:

She is easy to deal with. (It is easy to deal with her)

This story is impossible to believe. (It is impossible to believe this story.)

4.А part of a compound verbal predicate.

а) The Infinitive is a part of а compound verbal modal predicate when it is used with modal verbs, semi-modal verbs and modal expressions, and other verbs expressing modality such as want, like, hate, etc.

He’s so tall he can touch the ceiling.

First of all you have to mix the flour and the butter. We are going to consider our chances.

I like to see the children enjoying themselves.

b) The Infinitive is a part of а compound verbal aspect predicate when it follows verbs denoting the beginning, duration, cessation or repetition of an action, such as begin, start, commence, continue, cease, used to, would, etc.

We began to wonder if the train would ever arrive. The town which Joyce wrote about has long ceased to exist. They continued to work as if nothing had interrupted them.

She used to come here every evening.

Note: After the verbs stop, finish, go on, keep on we use gerund as a part of a compound verbal aspect predicate while infinitives perform a different syntactic function. After the verbs finish and stop the infinitive is used in the function of the adverbial modifier of purpose; after the verbs go on and keep on it is used as an object.

5. Object. All forms of the Infinitive are used in this function.

I’m glad to meet you.

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I’m glad to have met you. I’m glad to be told the news.

A number of adjectives (especially adjectives describing feelings) are commonly followed by an infinitive. They are: able/unable, afraid, anxious, ashamed, bound, careful, certain, crazy, curious, due, eager, fit, happy, likely, lucky, pleased, right, shocked, stupid, sure, surprised, thrilled, welcome, wrong.

Mary was surprised to meet her sister there. I’m lucky to have met you there.

He is eager to help us.

In some sentences the object expressed by an infinitive is introduced by the introductory it (a preparatory object):

We find it impossible to accept your offer. He considered it necessary to consult a doctor.

I find it difficult to talk to you.

Infinitive phrases “a conjunctive pronoun / adverb + Infinitive” are often used in the function of object after the verbs introducing indirect speech:

I don’t know what to do. Tell me where to go.

The Infinitive is а part of а complex object when it is а part of the Objective-with-the Infinitive construction.

We stood and watched them approach.

6. Attribute. Infinitives in this function are used in post-position. Both active and passive forms of the Indefinite are used. Though indefinite active forms are more common, in most cases active and passive infinitives are used without any difference in meaning:

Who was the first to mention it? There is nothing to see in this town. There is a lot of work to do / to be done.

In the following sentence the use of the passive infinitive has modal meaning:

There is nothing to be done. – Ничего не поделаешь.

There are a number of nouns that are often followed by infinitives, such as: attempt, decision, desire, need, opportunity, place, pleasure, reason, time, wish.

I have no desire to see him again.

It’s a nice opportunity to see London.

The best time to meet them is tomorrow evening.

7. Adverbial modifier.

а) Of purpose (Indefinite infinitives are used).

The infinitive can be introduced by the conjunctions in order, so as.

She went to London (in order) to see its museums. They hurried so as to be there first.

b) Of result (all forms of the infinitives are used).

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