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THE COMPOSITE SENTENCE

THE COMPOUND SENTENCE

A compound sentence is a sentence, which consists of two or more clauses coordinated with each other. A clause is a part of a sentence which has a subject and a predicate of its own.

In a compound sentence the clauses may be connected:

a) SYNDETICALLY, i.e. by means of coordinating conjunctions (and, or, else, but, etc.) or conjunctive adverbs (otherwise, however, nevertheless, yet, still, therefore).

He knew there were excuses for his father, yet he felt sick at heart.

b) ASYNDETICALLY, i.e. without a conjunction or conjunctive adverb.

The rain fell softly, the house was quiet.

We can distinguish the following types of coordination:

1. COPULATIVE COORDINATION (соединительная связь) expressed by the

conjunctions and, nor, neither... nor, not only... but (also). With the help of these conjunctions the statement expressed in one clause is simply added to that expressed in another.

Not only did he speak more correctly, but he spoke more easily.

2. DISJUNCTIVE COORDINATION (разделительная связь) expressed by the

conjunctions or, else, or else, either... or, otherwise. By these a choice is offered between the statements expressed in two clauses.

Don’t come near me with that look, else I’ll knock you down.

3. АDVERSATIVE COORDINATION (противительная связь) expressed by the

conjunctions but, only, whereas, while, yet, still, nevertheless. These are conjunctions and adverbs connecting two clauses contrasting in meaning.

The room was dark, but the street was light because of its lamps.

4. CAUSATIVE-CONSECUTIVE COORDINATION (причинно-следственная связь)

expressed by the conjunctions for, therefore, so, consequently, hence, accordingly.

Hers (Lillian’s) wasn’t a soul that ever loved passionately, hence she could not suffer passionately.

THE COMPLEX SENTENCE

A complex sentence consists of a principle clause and one or more subordinate clauses. Clauses in a complex sentence may be linked in two ways:

1. SYNDETICALLY, i.e. by means of subordinating conjunctions or connectives. There is a difference between a conjunction and a connective. A conjunction serves only as a formal element connecting separate clauses, whereas a connective serves as a connecting link and has at the same time a syntactic function in the subordinate clause it introduces.

What he had achieved seemed suddenly to have no meaning. – (connective).

2. ASYNDETICALLY, i.e. without a conjunction or connective.

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I wish you had come earlier.

A subordinate clause may follow, precede, or interrupt the principle clause. A complex sentence may contain two or more homogeneous clauses coordinated with each other. A subordinate clause may be subordinated to the principle clause or to another subordinate clause. Accordingly we distinguish subordinate clauses of the first, second, third, etc. degree of subordination.

I think I have noticed that they have an inconsistent way of speaking about her, as if she had made some great success in marrying Mr. Gowan.

According to their grammatical function subordinate clauses are divided into subject, predicative, object, attributive and adverbial clauses

SUBJECT CLAUSES

Subject clauses perform the function of a subject to the predicate of the principal clause. Attention should be paid to the peculiar structure of the principal clause, which in this case has no subject, the subordinate clause serving as such.

What I want to do is to get ready for the exams.

If a subject clause follows the principal clause the so-called introductory it is used in the principle clause.

It was always possible that they might rely upon someone.

NOTE: There is another view of the analysis of sentences of this type, according to which it is the subject of the principal clause, and the subordinate clause is a predicative clause.

Subject clauses are connected with the principal clause in the following way:by means of the conjunctions that, if, whether:

It was fortunate that the patient was brought in time.

by means of the connectives who, which, what, whoever, whatever (conjunctive pronouns); where, when, how, why ( conjunctive adverbs):

What was done could not be undone.

It’s a grand thing when you see the working class in action.

asyndetically:

It’s a pity her brother is quite a stranger to her.

Subject clauses are not separated from the principal clause by a comma except when we have two or more subject clauses coordinated with each other.

NOTE: Formally it is possible to distinguish a subject clause in sentences with an emphatic construction; however in meaning they are equivalent to simple sentences.

It was his uncle who spoke first.

PREDICATIVE CLAUSES

Predicative clauses perform the function of a predicative. The peculiarity of complex sentences with a predicative clause is that in the principal clause we find only part of the predicate, i.e. a link verb, which together with the predicative clause forms a compound nominal predicate.

Predicative clauses are connected with the principal clause in the following ways:

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by means of the conjunctions that, if, whether, as if:

Our attitude simply is that facts are facts.

It was as if these men and women had recognized each other. I felt as if death had laid a hand on me.

by means of the connectives who, which, what (conjunctive pronouns), where, when, how, why ( conjunctive adverbs):

The problem was how the matter was to be kept quiet.

That was why you were not one bit frightened.

As a rule, predicative clauses are not separated by a comma; a comma is used if we have two or more predicative clauses coordinated with each other.

NOTE: In a sentence containing a subject clause and a predicative clause the principal clause is represented only by the link verb.

What we are going to do is what we were told to.

OBJECT CLAUSES

Object clauses perform the function of an object to the predicate verb of the principal clause.

I don’t know what you are talking about.

An object clause may also refer to a non-finite form of the verb, to an adjective, or to a word belonging to the part of speech expressing state.

She looked my way wondering whether I did or did not mean to leave him alone with my aunt.

She was aware that someone else was there.

Object clauses are connected with the principal clause in the following way:by means of the conjunctions that, if, whether:

She wondered if (whether) Brian and Margaret were really suited for one another.by means of the connectives who, which, what, whatever, whoever, whichever

(conjunctive pronouns); where, when, how (conjunctive adverbs):

I’ll do just what I say.

asyndetically:

He said there was nothing much the matter with me.

An object clause may be introduced by a preposition.

I am always ready to listen to whatever you may wish to share with me.

There are some types of complex sentences with an object clause: 1. An object clause may directly follow the verb it refers to:

I know what I have done.

2.An object clause refers to the formal introductory "it" followed by the objective predicative:

I think it necessary that you should go there at once.

3.There are also cases when an object clause functions like a cognate object to a verb:

He and his mamma knew very few people and lived what might have been thought

very lonely there.

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As a rule object clauses are not separated by a comma from the principal clause. A comma may or may not be used if the object clause precedes the principal clause.

What I used not to like, I long for now. What happened then I don’t know.

If we have two or more homogeneous object clauses they are separated from each other by a comma.

ATTRIBUTIVE CLAUSES

Attributive clauses serve as an attribute to a noun (pronoun) in the principal clause. The noun or pronoun is called the antecedent of the clause. According to their meaning and the way they are connected with the principal clause attributive clauses are divided into relative and appositive ones

Attributive relative clauses qualify the antecedent, whereas attributive appositive clauses disclose its meaning.

Attributive relative clauses are joined to the principal clause syndetically – by means of connectives, and asyndetically; attributive appositive clauses are joined only syndetically – by means of conjunctions.

Attributive Relative Clauses

Attributive relative clauses can be restrictive and non-restrictive or descriptive.

1. A restrictive relative clause restricts the meaning of the antecedent. It cannot be removed without destroying the meaning of the sentence. They are introduced in the following way:

relative pronouns (who, whose, which, that, as)

relative adverbs ( where, when)

asyndetically

All that could be done had been done.

I think my father is the best man I have ever known.

2. An attributive relative non-restrictive clause does not restrict the meaning of the antecedent; it gives some additional information about it. It can be left out without destroying the meaning of the sentence. They in most cases are introduced syndetically by means of

relative pronouns ( who, which)

relative adverbs

Mr. Prusty, who kept no assistant, slowly got off his stool.

A variant of the attributive non-restrictive clauses is the continuative clause, whose antecedent is not one word but a whole clause. It is introduced by a relative pronoun which , translated into Russian by the pronoun что.

Mr. Manson was not indoors, which was a relief to her.

Attributive Appositive Clauses

Attributive appositive clauses disclose the meaning of the antecedent, which is expressed by an abstract noun. They are chiefly introduced by the conjunction whether or by the adverb how and why. They are not joined to the principal clause asyndetically.

He stopped in the hope that she would speak.

ADVERBIAL CLAUSES

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An adverbial clause performs the function of an adverbial modifier. It can modify a verb, an adjective or an adverb in the principal clause.

He stopped as Kravat came rushing out. (Heym)

According to their meaning we distinguish the following kinds of adverbial clauses: adverbial clauses of time, place, cause (reason), purpose, condition, concession, result, manner, and comparison.

Adverbial clauses are joined to the principal clause by means of subordinating conjunctions; they are not joined to the principal clause asyndetically except, sometimes, adverbial clauses of condition.

An adverbial clause may precede the clause to which it is subordinated or follow it. In the first case it is separated by a comma, in the second, as a rule, no comma is used. An adverbial clause may also interrupt the principal clause, in which case a comma is used at the beginning and at the end of it.

When things are at the worst, they’re sure to mend. (Collins)

If we have two or more homogeneous adverbial clauses they are separated from each other by a comma.

Adverbial Clauses of Time

An adverbial clause of time shows the time of the action expressed in the principal clause.

Adverbial clauses of time are introduced by the following conjunctions: when, while, whenever (когда бы ни), as, till, until, as soon as, as long as, since, after, before, now that (теперь, когда)

My mother died when I was eight years old... (Eliot)

In some cases an adverbial clause of time introduced by the conjunction as has the meaning of the gradual development of a process.

As dark night drew on, the sea roughened. (Ch. Bronte)

There are sentences in which the conjunctions when and than introducing adverbial clauses of time are correlated with the adverbs scarcely, hardly and no sooner in the principal clause.

They had hardly reached the camp when it started pouring. No sooner had I closed the door than somebody knocked again.

NOTE 1 – The conjunction when introducing adverbial clauses of time should not be confused with the adverb when introducing predicative clauses, object clauses, and attributive clauses.

Compare the following examples:

And people love their homes, even when things are tough. – (adverbial clause of time)

The next thing to discover is when the paint was last seen without that smear. – (predicative clause)

NOTE 2 – Adverbial clauses of time introduced by the subordinating conjunction while should not be confused with the coordinating conjunction while.

There was a pause while he raised his cup and drank some tea. – (adv. clause of time)

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His face was disturbed and troubled, while his clothes were disarranged and untidy.

– (independent clause)

Adverbial Clauses of Place

Adverbial clauses of place show the place or direction of the action expressed in the principal clause. Adverbial clauses of place are introduced by the conjunctions where and whenever (где бы ни, куда бы ни)

I am quite comfortable where I am (Wilde)

Note: One should not confuse the conjunction where introducing adverbial clauses of place with the adverb where introducing predicative clauses, object clauses, and attributive relative clauses.

Derona placed himself where he could see her... – (adv. clause of place)

Adverbial Clauses of Cause

An adverbial clause of cause (reason) shows the cause or motivation of the action expressed in the principal clause. Adverbial clauses of cause are introduced by the conjunctions as, because, since, for fear (that); in official style they may also be introduced by the conjunctions on the ground that, for the reason and some others.

As he had a liking for the spot,

he seldom let a week pass without paying it a visit. (Dickens)

Subordinate clauses of cause introduced by the conjunction because denote a general reason of the action expressed in the principal clause; those introduced by since denote a reason or grounds for the action of the principal clause, clauses with as denote a wellknown or evident reason, clauses with for denote grounds, explanation or some additional idea providing for the action expressed in the principal clause to take place.

I think he must have had some talent, for I have even now a very vivid recollection of the portrait he painted of Rosie Driffield.

Adverbial Clauses of Purpose

Adverbial clauses of purpose state the purpose of the action expressed in the principal clause. They are introduced by the conjunctions that, in order that, so that, lest (чтобы не) and some others.

She kept her back to the window that he might not see her rising colour. (Hardy)

When the subordinate clause is introduced by the conjunction so that the Future Indefinite or the modal verb can are used in it if the predicate of the principal clause is in a Present Tense; the Future Indefinite in the Past or the modal verb could are used if the predicate of the principal clause is in a Past Tense.

I’m buying plenty of coal so that the house will be warm.

He left the key under a stone so that she could get to the house whenever she wanted.

The use of the modal verbs "shall", "should", "may/might" in the clauses introduced by the conjunctions "that", "so that", "in order that" makes the utterance more formal.

The supply is rationed so that everyone may have a share.

Though adverbial clauses of purpose with the predicate in the negative form are used, it is preferable to use gerundial or infinitive phrases or constructions.

He often changes his address so that the enemies won't find him.

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He dyed his beard to avoid being recognized.

When the principal clause denotes an action which is a precaution against possible future events denoted in the subordinate clause, conjunctions in case, lest are used. In the subordinate clause introduced by the conjunction in case the Present Indefinite, the Past Indefinite, or the analytical form of the Subjunctive Mood with the auxiliary should + Indefinite Infinitive may be used. In the subordinate clause introduced by the conjunction lest the form of the Subjunctive Mood with the auxiliary should + Indefinite Infinitive is used irrespective of the tense form of the predicate in the principal clause.

I’ll leave out some cold meat in case you are hungry when you come in.

He took a torch in case it got dark before he returned. She doesn't let him leave the train lest he should get lost.

Adverbial Clauses of Condition

Adverbial clauses of condition state the condition which is necessary for the realization of the action expressed in the principal clause. They are introduced by the conjunctions if, unless (если не), suppose, in case (в случае если), on condition that, provided (при условии что), etc.

If he is not here by the end of the week, I shall go after him (Austen)

You won’t master the language unless you work hard.

Adverbial clauses of condition can be joined to the principal clause asyndetically. In this case we find inversion in the subordinate clause.

...should Frank marry to-morrow, I shall have no ground for blaming him (Trollope)

Adverbial Clauses of Concession

An adverbial clause of concession denotes the presence of some obstacle which nevertheless does not hinder the action expressed in the principal clause.

Adverbial clauses of concession are introduced by the following conjunctions: though, although, as, no matter how, however, whoever, whatever, whichever. In official style they may also be introduced by the conjunctions notwithstanding that, in spite of the fact that.

I enjoyed that day, though we travelled slowly, though it was cold, though it rained(Ch. Bronte)

If the subordinate clause of concession expresses a pure supposition, the forms of the Subjunctive Mood with the modal verb may/might are used in it.

However rich one may be there is always something one wants.

When the subordinate clause of concession is introduced by even if the modal verb should may be used to show that the action expressed by the infinitive of the notional verb is unlikely to happen.

Even if he should find out he won't do anything about it.

Adverbial Clauses of Manner

Adverbial clauses of manner characterize the action or some other aspect of the situation denoted in the principal clause. They may refer to a verb, a verbal, an adjective or an adverb in the principal clause. Adverbial clauses of manner are introduced by the conjunction as.

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He could do it as no one else could have done.

In their meaning adverbial clauses of manner are very close to the adverbial clauses of comparison.

Adverbial Clauses of Comparison

Adverbial clauses of comparison denote an action or a state with which the action, the state or the manner of the action of the principal clause are compared.

They are introduced by the conjunctions: than, as, as … as, not so ... as, as if, as though.

I wish I could make you as happy as you make me.

But at last, raising herself from the sofa with difficulty, as though she had had an illness and were still weak, she found her feet.

Adverbial Clauses of Result

Adverbial clauses of result denote the result of the action, or state expressed in the principal clause.

They are introduced by the conjunctions so that or that. In the second case the adverb so or the demonstrative pronoun such is used in the principal clause.

It was so hot that nobody wanted to do anything.

It was such a hot day that nobody wanted to do anything.

THE COMPOUND-COMPLEX SENTENCE

It is a sentence which consists of two or more coordinate clauses one of which at least includes one or several subordinate clauses,

There was a song in every heart; and if the heart was young the music issued at the lips.

THE COMPLEX SENTENCE WITH HOMOGENEOUS SUBORDINATE CLAUSES

It is a sentence which consists of a principal clause and two or more subordinate clauses.

The details were vague, for neither my uncle nor my aunt knew anything of business matters, nor had I the knowledge to make what they told me comprehended.

FORMAL INDICATORS OF SUBORDINATION

CLASSIFICATION OF CONNECTORS

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In a compound sentence syntactic units combined by means of coordination are regarded as independent: there is no hierarchy in the syntactic relationship. It is based on the symmetric relationship of coordination. For example:

(1) All the rooms were brightly lighted, (2) all the tiny nooks were beautifully decorated, (3) but there seemed to be complete silence in the house.

In this sentence the first two clauses are joined asyndetically and the third is introduced by means of the coordinating conjunction but. It can be graphically represented in the following way:

1-2; asyndetic coordination

2-3: syndetic coordination

A complex sentence is based on a hierarchical syntactic structure and has asymmetrical relationship of subordination. For example:

(1) I want you to sit here beside me and listen to (2) what I am going to say.

In this sentence the first clause (1) is an independent main clause and the second (2) object clause is grammatically dependent upon it. It can be graphically represented in the following way:

1

What 2

1-main clause

2-subordinate clause

ARRANGEMENT OF DEPENDENT CLAUSES

If a sentence has two or more dependent clauses, they can be arranged in various ways. Dependent clauses can be homogeneous. For example:

(1) A classic is something (2) that everybody wants to have read (3) and nobody wants to read.

This sentence can be graphically represented in the following way:

1

Secondly, a dependent clause may be subordinated directly to the main clause, thus becoming a clause of first degree of subordination, or another dependent clause, in which case it becomes a clause of third degree of subordination. For example:

I sometimes wonder (2) how you behave (3) when you are alone.

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