грамматика+учебник

Any book will do. – Любая книга подойдет.

The stressed form of any denotes an unrestricted quantity or unlimited choice:

I don't eat any meat. - Я не ем никакого мяса.

You can take any book. – Ты можешь взять любую книгу.

If the negation refers to the subject, the negative pronoun no is used:

No book will give you the answer. – Никакая книга не даст вам ответа.

Much, many, a lot of are used to denote a large quantity of something; much is used with uncountable nouns and many is used with countable nouns. They are preferable in questions and negative statements, while a lot of is used in affirmative sentences both with plural nouns and uncountable nouns:

How many questions were you asked? I wasn't asked many questions.

There isn't much coffee left.

There are a lot of interesting articles in this magazine. There is a lot of interesting information in it.

We also use much/many after "so", "too", "how":

She has so many books to read. You are wasting too much time. Tell me how much you have already done.

Note: 1. Many and much may be used in affirmative sentences, too, especially in written and formal English.

2. A lot is used in questions and negative statements to give extra emphasis to the amount.

Several, a few, a little suggest a smaller but sufficient quantity; several and a few are used with countable nouns, while a little is used with uncountable nouns. They are more often used in affirmative sentences:

She found several articles on the subject.

I have a few magazines, which can interest you. There is a little coffee still.

Few and little denote a small quantity, which is not enough. They are more often used in formal written English. Informally not many / much are used:

Few people can answer this question. Not many people can answer this question. She has got little advice. She hasn't got much practical advice.

All and both can precede other determiners such as the, possessive pronouns, or demonstrative pronouns:

All these exercises are rather difficult. All the magazines are here.

Both my brothers are older than me. We can also combine the following determiners:

-every and few, e.g. I travel every few weeks.

-a few and more/less, e.g. He needed a few more newspapers.

-a little and more/less, e.g. I received a little less money.

11

-few/little and enough, e.g. We get few enough letters as it is.

-much and more, e.g. There is much more work to do.

-They all can be combined (except every and no) with of-phrase, e.g. either of them, many of them.

Little, few, much, many have degrees of comparison; the degrees of comparison of little and much can be used with nouns preceded by adjectives to refer to the quantity of quality, e.g. a less interesting book, the least complicated solution, a more difficult exercise, the most exciting proposal.

More, most, fewer, fewest, less, least are used in statements about quantity, e.g. more people, fewer people, less water, etc.

12

THE ARTICLE

The articles are words, which modify nouns.

The indefinite article a/an has developed from the numeral one and has some of its meaning as it modifies only nouns in the singular.

The definite article has developed from the Old English demonstrative pronoun.

The articles are usually unstressed. The indefinite article ‘a’ is used before nouns beginning with a consonant, e.g. a book, a flower. The indefinite article ‘an’ is used before nouns beginning with a vowel or silent h, e.g. an apple, an hour. The article is stressed if the following word is emphasized.

USE OF ARTICLES WITH COMMON NOUNS

ARTICLES WITH COUNTABLE NOUNS

Most of the class nouns and some abstract nouns are countable. The indefinite article is used with nouns in the singular and it has the nominating, classifying, numeric and generalizing meaning. The absence of article (the zero article) before plural nouns has similar meanings.

USE OF THE INDEFINITE ARTICLE

The indefinite article has the nominating meaning when we give a name to an object:

A man is waiting for you.

We may use some, several, few, or a numeral if the noun is in the plural:

Some girls are waiting for you.

The indefinite article has nominating meaning in sentences with "there is/there are", after 'have" and "have got":

There is a man in the room. I have got a problem.

The indefinite article has the classifying meaning when it refers an object to a certain class of similar objects:

John is a student. His sister, a girl of 16, was extremely beautiful.

There is no article before a noun in the plural:

All my friends are students.

Nouns with the indefinite article in the classifying meaning are usually used as predicative or apposition.

The indefinite article has the numeric meaning when it expresses oneness. It is often used with nouns denoting time, distance, and weight, with the nouns dozen and score and numerals hundred, thousand, million:

An hour passed, than another one. She bought milk and a dozen eggs.

About a hundred people were already in the room.

It can also have the meaning of "every" in expressions of time or quantity: two times an hour.

The indefinite article has the generalizing meaning when the noun it modifies denotes a typical member of a class:

A dog is a domestic animal.

13

Note: Among abstract countable nouns are the following: answer, belief, conclusion, decision, fact, holiday, idea, job, lie, mistake, opinion, plan, promise, question, reply, sentence, word.

USE OF THE DEFINITE ARTICLE

The definite article is used both with nouns in the singular and in the plural. It has the specifying and the generic meaning.

The definite article has the specifying meaning when the noun refers to a particular object or objects distinct from the others of the same class:

He entered the house expecting to find his parents there.

It is also used with the nouns denoting unique objects:

The sun hadn't risen yet when they started.

Note: If nouns denoting unique objects are modified by descriptive attributes they take the indefinite article:

A bleak winter sun gave no warmth.

The definite article has the generic meaning when the noun refers to a class of objects as a whole:

The tiger is a dangerous animal.

The plural noun in a generic sense takes no article:

The daisy is a pretty flower. Daisies are pretty flowers.

The noun man has no article when used in the generic sense; the noun woman is used with the definite article or without any article:

Man has to take care of nature. (The) woman is more sensitive than man is.

The definite article has the generic meaning when used with nouns denoting genres, e.g. the tragedy, the comedy, or collective singular nouns denoting classes or groups, e.g. the aristocracy, the public, the press.

The nouns mankind and humanity are used without any article:

Mankind has no choice but fight against terrorism.

It is often used with nouns that are names of animals, plants, professions and scientific terms:

The teacher is a noble profession.

USE OF ARTICLES WITH COUNTABLE NOUNS MODIFIED BY ATTRIBUTES

When a noun is modified by an attribute, the latter can influence the use of articles. There are two types of attributes - limiting and descriptive.

Descriptive attributes do not influence the use of articles. Both the definite and indefinite articles can be used with the noun modified by a descriptive attribute in accordance with the general rules of the use of articles:

A young girl entered the room.

He turned round. The young girl was following him.

A limiting attribute is used to point out a particular object or a number of objects from the other objects of the same class or kind. A noun modified by a limiting attribute is used with the definite article:

Jane was the oldest girl in our group.

14

Words belonging to different parts of speech can be used as limiting or descriptive attributes:

ATTRIBUTES EXPRESSED BY ADJECTIVES

- Adjectives in the superlative degree are limiting attributes;

It is the most interesting film I have ever seen.

- Adjectives same, only, very, main, principal, left, right, central, following, present, former, last, next, wrong are limiting attributes:

It is the same person. We took the wrong turn and lost our way.

Note 1: Nouns denoting time (day, week, month, year, etc.) do not take article when they are modified by the adjectives next and last in the present time context and are used in the function of the adverbial modifier of time:

They finished school last year. Next week we are going to Moscow.

Note 2: The adjective only is used as a descriptive attribute with the nouns son, daughter, child: John is an only child.

- The adjective whole and the pronoun all used as an adjective are descriptive attributes and articles with the nouns modified by them are used according to the general rules:

It took him a whole day to write this composition. I spent the whole evening writing letters.

All people like holidays.

All the people in the room are my friends.

ATTRIBUTES EXPRESSED BY NUMERALS

- Ordinal numerals are usually used as limiting attributes:

The first day in the camp was rather boring.

Note: If an ordinal numeral means ‘another’, the noun it modifies takes the indefinite article:

She was thirsty. She drank a second glass and felt better.

- Cardinal numerals can be used as limiting attributes and take the definite article with the meaning of 'these/those':

I watched the people at the next table. The two men looked hostile.

We have missed the ten o’clock train and have to wait for the next one.

Note: No article is used if the cardinal numeral is used in post-position:

We are to read text 2 and to answer the questions.

ATTRIBUTES EXPRESSED BY NOUNS

- Nouns in common case are usually descriptive attributes and articles are used according to the general rules:

The book cover was bright and attractive. A paper bag attracted her attention. Last year we had only a two-week holiday.

Proper nouns in common case are usually limiting attributes:

The Broadway theatres are very popular.

15

- Nouns in genitive case can be both limiting and descriptive attributes. The article usually refers to the noun in the genitive case if the noun denotes a particular person or thing and both articles can be used:

A child's toy lay on the grass. I don't like the child's behaviour.

The noun in the genitive case denoting qualitative relations or of the nouns denoting time, space or weight is a descriptive attribute and the article refers to the head-noun:

We don’t have to wear a student’s uniform. The student’s uniform at Oxford hasn’t changed. The lake is not very far; it’s just a two miles’ walk.

We didn’t enjoy the two miles’ walk to the lake.

No article is used when the noun is modified by the nouns today, yesterday, tomorrow in the genitive case:

I haven’t read today’s newspaper yet.

- A noun with a preposition (a prepositional phrase) can be both a limiting and a descriptive attribute:

A smile of happiness lit her face. I don't know the man at the window.

The following prepositional phrases are used as descriptive attributes:

a)phrases denoting a container with its contents, e.g. a cup of tea;

b)phrases denoting certain quantity, e.g. a slice of meat;

c)phrases denoting composition, e.g. a crowd of people, a pair of gloves;

d)phrases denoting measure, e.g. a distance of two kilometres, an ounce of milk;

e)phrases denoting origin, e.g. a citizen of Russia;

f)phrases denoting characteristics of an object, e.g. a woman of unusual beauty;

g)phrases denoting age, e.g. a man of 30;

h)phrases denoting material a thing is made of, e.g. a ring of gold;

i)of-phrases with the double genitive, e.g. a friend of my sister's.

The of-phrase can be also used as a limiting attribute, e.g. the city of Moscow, the sound of the door.

ATTRIBUTES EXPRESSED BY INFINITIVES

They can be both limiting and descriptive attributes:

Ask him. He is the man to help you. We have a task to solve.

ATTRIBUTES EXPRESSED BY ATTRIBUTIVE CLAUSES

If a noun is modified by a limiting attributive clause, the definite article is used:

We looked at the road that was stretching in front of us.

If a noun is modified by a descriptive attributive clause, the indefinite article is used:

We took a road that was leading south.

16

USE OF ARTICLES WITH UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS

USE OF ARTICLES WITH THE NOUNS OF MATERIAL

Nouns of material are used in singular but they do not take the indefinite article. They are usually used without any article and the absence of article has the nominating meaning:

Bread, butter and meat were already on the table.

Nouns modified by descriptive attributes are used without any article:

Children need fresh air.

The definite article is used when the noun refers to a definite quantity of substance:

Pass me the butter, please.

The meaning of the definite article is restricting. The restriction may be also expressed by the limiting attribute:

I don't like the food in this cafe.

These rules apply to some collective nouns denoting a group of objects, thought of as a whole, e.g. furniture, equipment, silverware, luggage, etc.:

They have just bought new furniture for their house.

The nouns of material can become countable; then the articles are used according to the general rules. In such cases they denote:

-A kind or a variety of substance, e.g.

She always drinks a white wine at dinner.

-A portion of food or drink, e.g.

She used to have a tea and a cake for lunch.

USE OF ARTICLES WITH ABSTRACT NOUNS

Abstract nouns can be countable and uncountable. Uncountable abstract nouns are used only in singular and take no article when used in general sense:

While there is love, there is life.

Abstract nouns may be modified by attributes. If a descriptive attribute narrows the notion expressed by the abstract noun, no article is used. Descriptive attributes can be expressed by the following groups of adjectives:

- Adjectives denoting nationality, e.g. English literature, Flemish art:

I love French poetry.

-Adjectives denoting social characteristics, e.g. racial prejudice, feudal law, social tension, etc.:

There is no place for racial prejudice in a democratic society.

-Adjectives denoting periods of time, e.g. modern art, Victorian age:

I admire modern art.

Remember the exceptions: The Middle Ages, (the) golden age of.

- Adjectives denoting authenticity, e.g. true love, false friendship, real power:

It was false alarm.

True friendship is the most valuable thing in life.

17

- Adjectives denoting degree or extent, e.g. immense success, complete failure, absolute power:

It is sheer stupidity.

Remember the exception: be a complete failure (when we speak about a person or thing that is not successful): He was a complete failure as an actor.

- Adjectives denoting genres or trends in art, e.g. detective literature, romantic poetry, dramatic collision:

I love spiritual music.

- Adjectives referring to man's social and spiritual life and those characterizing man's manner or behaviour, e.g. public relations, social position, immoral behaviour, human law, nervous state:

Every politician needs public recognition.

-Adjectives denoting position or locality, e.g. local authority, inner vision, outside information:

Local authority is not able to solve this problem.

-Adjectives characterizing phenomena as continual or recurrent, e.g. continuous discussion, constant failure:

These facts will cause continuous discussion.

-Some other adjectives, e.g. good, bad, free, critical, plain, ordinary, human, etc.: good reputation, free talk, plain appearance:

Good reputation is difficult to earn but easy to lose.

An abstract noun may be used with the indefinite article in the following cases:

-If it has a descriptive attribute and a certain aspect of the notion denoted by the noun is meant:

Her face expressed a calm dignity of the one who knew the answer.

-Some abstract nouns can be used with the indefinite article when their meaning is particular rather than general and in set expressions:

You need a good rest.

Thank you, you’ve been a great help.

We had a good time at the picnic last Sunday.

- If an abstract noun is modified by the adjective certain or peculiar:

He felt a certain anxiety in the air.

- The nouns pity, shame, disgrace, pleasure, relief, comfort, disappointment are always used with the indefinite article in the sentences beginning with the formal it as subject:

It's a pity, you haven't met him.

They are also used with the indefinite article in exclamatory sentences after what:

What a pleasure to see you again!

A number of abstract nouns function both as countable and uncountable nouns. As countable nouns they can denote some concrete things or particular notions. When they

18

are used as countable nouns, they follow the general rules for the use of articles with class nouns but as uncountable nouns they never take the indefinite article.

Remember: The following abstract uncountable nouns are never used with the indefinite article:

accommodation, advice, behaviour, chaos, experience, expense, information, lightning, luck, music, nature, news, nonsense, permission, progress, publicity, research, scenery, society, space, thunder, traffic, travel, trouble, weather, work.

The definite article is used in the following cases:

- when a limiting attribute or a context restricts the notion denoted by the noun, e.g.

The hopelessness of our efforts was disheartening.

- The substantivized adjectives denoting abstract notions are always used with the definite article, e.g. the present, the past, the future, the singular, the plural, e.g.

They didn't expect anything cheerful in the future.

Note: The expression in future means ‘from this time on’, while in the future means ‘after a period of time’:

In future try to be more careful. You will need it in the future.

ARTICLES WITH NOUNS IN SOME SYNTACTIC FUNCTIONS AND

PATTERNS

1. Articles with predicative nouns

- The indefinite article with the singular countable nouns and zero articles with the plural countable nouns and singular uncountable nouns have the classifying meaning:

He is a student. They are students. This is love.

- The definite article is used when the predicative noun is modified by a limiting attribute:

He is the person to help you. He is the authority you look for.

2. Articles with nouns in apposition

19

- The indefinite article with the singular and a zero article with the plural has the classifying meaning:

Jane, a girl of 17, is already a student.

John and Nick, young sportsmen, will take part in the competition.

-The definite article is used when the noun is modified by a limiting attribute or the noun refers to a familiar object:

Mr. Smith, the owner of the house, met us on the steps.

R. Burns, the famous Scottish poet, is well known to Russian readers.

-Nouns denoting titles and ranks are used without article if they are followed by personal names: President Bush, Queen Mary.

-Nouns denoting family relations are used without articles if they are followed by personal names: Aunt Mary, Uncle John.

-Other appositive nouns take the definite article if they are followed by personal names: the painter Hogarth, the writer Dickens.

-The definite article is used with names of books, films, etc.: the novel "A Farewell to Arms".

3. Articles in parallel structures

Nouns used in parallel structures take no article:

He went from house to house asking the same question.

Remember: arm in arm, hand in hand, man to man, shoulder to shoulder, from beginning to end, from north to south, from floor to ceiling, from right to left, from head to foot.

4. Articles with nouns used as address

Nouns used to address a person take no article:

Do you hear me, officer?

5. Articles after the verbs to appoint, to elect, to make

No article is used as a rule with nouns after these verbs:

Last year he was appointed secretary of the council.

6. Articles after “as”

Both articles can be used with nouns introduced by as. The article can be left out as well:

She allowed it as an exception. As the headmaster she had to do it.

She started to work as teacher last year.

7. Article after the exclamatory “what”

After the exclamatory what the indefinite article is used with countable nouns in the singular. In other cases nouns do not take any article:

What a pity! What nice weather we are having this autumn!

SPECIAL CASES OF THE USE OF ARTICLES

ARTICLES WITH THE NAMES OF SEASONS

Names of seasons (winter, spring, summer, autumn) are usually used without article if they have general sense:

20