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We considered him to be a sincere person, but we were mistaken.

He didn’t mean for you to get hurt. I insist on your learning this rule.

THE COGNATE OBJECT is a special kind of object that has some peculiarities:

1.It is used with intransitive verbs though it has no preposition.

2.It is expressed by a noun, which either has the same root as the verb or is similar to it in meaning.

3.It is almost regularly modified by an attribute with which it forms a phrase that is close in meaning to an adverbial modifier: to live a happy life - to live happily.

The cognate object is generally used in such combinations as: smile a sad smile, laugh a bitter laugh, die a violent death and others of the kind.

For the next four days he lived a simple and blameless life ...

THE ATTRIBUTE

The attribute is a secondary part of the sentence, which qualifies a noun, a pronoun, or any other part of speech that has a nominal character.

THE APPOSITION

An apposition is a special kind of attribute which is expressed by a noun (with or without accompanying words) which characterizes or explains the word modified by giving the person or thing another name. There are two kinds of apposition.

THE CLOSE APPOSITION is not separated by commas and stands in close connection with the word modified. These word-groups generally consist either of the name of a person and a noun denoting a title, rank, profession, or the name of a person and a noun, denoting relationship, or a geographical name and some common noun:

Professor Higgins, Aunt Polly, President Clinton, Lake Ontario.

Even Aunt Polly was there.

In these word-groups the noun modified is the name of a person or a geographical name, the first component is a noun in apposition.

Sometimes the apposition consists of the preposition of + noun: the town of York.

THE LOOSE OR DETACHED APPOSITION is not so closely connected with the noun. It is always separated by commas and has a stress of its own.

She lived in the house of Timothy, her younger brother.

THE ADVERBIAL MODIFIER

The adverbial modifier is a secondary part of the sentence, which modifies a verb, an adjective or an adverb. According to their meaning we distinguish the following adverbial modifiers:

1. The adverbial modifier of time (it shows the time of the action or state expressed by the predicate):

We shall try it tomorrow.

2. The adverbial modifier of frequency (it shows how often or how regularly the action or the state expressed by the subject takes place):

They often ask silly questions.

3. The adverbial modifier of place and direction (it shows the place of the action or the direction of the movement expressed by the predicate):

Gains had spies everywhere.

4.The adverbial modifier of manner (it expresses the way or the manner in which the action expressed by the predicate is performed)

Their conversations were conducted with icy formality.

5.The adverbial modifier of attendant circumstances (it shows another action performed together with the action expressed by the predicate):

Now I can go to bed without dreading tomorrow.

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6. The adverbial modifier of degree and measure (it shows the degree, measure or level of a quality or state):

It’s rather good.

You are absolutely right.

7.The adverbial modifier of cause (it shows the cause or the reason of the action or state expressed by the predicate):

Mr. Snow being in difficulty, all considerations of private feelings must give way.

Because of the snow we couldn’t continue our trip.

8.The adverbial modifier of result or consequence (it shows the result or the consequence of the action or state expressed by the predicate); adverbs too and enough are often used:

She is too fond of a child to leave it.

He is clever enough to solve such problems himself.

9. The adverbial modifier of condition (it is very rare and it shows the condition under which the action or state expressed by the predicate takes place):

She never would have been able to make such success, but for the kindness and assistance of the men.

Without working hard you will achieve nothing.

10. The adverbial modifier of comparison (it gives characteristic to states and actions comparing them with some other states, qualities or actions):

Kathy is as white as wool.

11. The adverbial modifier of concession (it is very rare and it shows that the action or state expressed by the predicate is unexpected because there is an obstacle):

Though frightened, he carried it off very well.

Despite the mistakes her work is good.

12. The adverbial modifier of purpose (it shows the purpose of the action or state expressed by the predicate):

I’ve come here to tell you the truth. They opened the way for her to come to him.

MEANS OF EXPRESSING THE ADVERBIAL MODIFIER

DETACHED (LOOSE) PARTS OF THE SENTENCE

Detached parts of the sentence are those secondary parts which assume a certain grammatical and semantic independence. This phenomenon is due to their loose connection with the words they modify. Loose connection may be due to the position of these words, the way they are expressed, their meaning, or the speaker’s desire to make them prominent. In spoken language detached parts of the sentence are marked by intonation, pauses and special stress; in written language they are generally separated by commas or dashes. Adverbial modifiers, attributes and prepositional indirect objects may stand in loose connection to the word they modify, i.e. they may be detached (loose) parts of the sentence. The adverbial modifier is more apt to stand in loose connection than any other part of the sentence.

THE DETACHED ADVERBIAL MODIFIER: Any part of speech used in the function of an adverbial modifier may be detached, which accounts for a comma that separates a construction from the rest of the sentence.

In her excitement, Maria jammed the bedroom-door together.

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An adverbial modifier expressed by the Nominative Absolute Participial Construction or any other absolute construction is generally detached.

With his hands buried in his hands, he didn’t see her enter the room.

Of all the kinds of adverbial modifiers that of attendant circumstances is most apt to become detached.

He came in, with a large parcel under his arm.

THE DETACHED ATTRIBUTE: A detached attribute can modify not only a common noun as an ordinary attribute does, but also a proper noun and a pronoun.

Dumb with amazement, Mr. Gradgrind crossed to the spot where his family was.

THE DETACHED OBJECT: The prepositional indirect object is often detached.

She doesn’t change - except her hair.

THE INDEPENDENT ELEMENTS OF THE SENTENCE

The independent elements of the sentence are words and word-groups which are not grammatically dependent on any part of the sentence.

They are:

1.Interjections such as ah, oh, hurrah, eh, hallo, goodness gracious, good heavens,

etc.

2.Direct address. Good morning, sweet child!

3.Parenthesis.

A PARENTHESIS either shows the speaker’s attitude towards the thought expressed in the sentence or connects a given sentence with another one, or summarizes what is said in the sentence. A parenthesis is connected with the rest of the sentence rather semantically than grammatically. No question can be put to it. Very often it is detached from the rest of the sentence and consequently it is often separated from it by commas or dashes.

Besides, you know, I’m a pensioner, anyway.

A Parenthesis can be expressed by:

1.Modal words such as indeed, certainly, assuredly, decidedly, in fact, truly, naturally, surely, actually, possibly, perhaps, evidently, obviously, maybe.

Luckily, they found what they had been looking for.

2.Adverbs, which to a certain extent serve as connectives such as firstly, secondly, finally, thus, consequently, then, anyway moreover, besides, still, yet, nevertheless, otherwise, notwithstanding, therefore, etc.

He was loosing money. Furthermore, he was ruined.

3.Prepositional phrases such as in a word, in truth, in my opinion, in short, by the by, on the one hand, on the contrary, at least, etc.

By the way, Harry, this is a report.

4. Infinitive and participial phrases such as to be sure, to tell the truth, to begin with, generally speaking, strictly speaking, etc.

To tell you the truth, I don’t want to go there.

SENTENCES WITH HOMOGENEOUS PARTS

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Two or more parts of the sentence having the same function and referring to the same part of the sentence are called homogeneous parts of the sentence. They are linked either by means of coordinating conjunctions or asyndetically. There can be:

1. Two or more homogeneous subjects to one predicate.

Spoons, forks and knives were already on the table.

2. Two or more homogeneous predicates to one subject. a) Simple predicates:

He went away and came back without informing anybody. b) A compound verbal modal predicate with homogenous parts within it:

He could run and jump better than anybody.

c)A compound verbal aspect predicate with homogeneous parts within it:

He began to take the things away and put them into the cupboard.

d)A compound nominal predicate with several predicatives within it:

She was smart, pretty and sensitive. It became gloomy and cold.

3. Two or more attributes, objects, or adverbial modifiers to one part of the sentence.

Red, brown and yellow leaves covered the ground. I want to take some newspapers and magazines.

It often rains here in autumn and in winter.

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INDIRECT SPEECH

Indirect Speech is a form of utterance in which the words of the speaker are reported (but not reproduced exactly).

When direct speech is converted into indirect the following changes are necessary:

1. The quotation marks and the comma are omitted.

She says: “I’m glad to see you.” – She says she is glad to see me.

2. If the speaker reports somebody else's words, the pronouns are correspondingly changed:

Ann says: “I’ll help you.” – Ann says she’ll help us.

3. As the reported speech is a subordinate clause in the sentence, the word order in it is direct:

“Where’s Mary?” he asks. – He asks where Mary is.

4. If the verb in the principal clause is in a past tense the tenses in the subordinate clause are changed according to the general rules of the sequence of tenses. It may be necessary to replace the adverbs and demonstrative pronouns expressing 'nearness' by those denoting 'distance'.

John said: “These people here are my friends” –

John said those people there were his friends.

INDIRECT STATEMENTS

Indirect Statements are generally introduced by the verbs say, tell, inform, announce. With the verbs tell, inform the person addressed is always mentioned.

He informed us that the manager was busy.

He will tell them that he doesn’t want to go there.

Note: In the phrase “the book tells of …” the verb ‘tell’ is used without mentioning the person addressed.

With the verbs say, announce the person addressed may or may not be mentioned. If it is mentioned, the preposition 'to' is used,

He said to us that the manager was busy.

Note: The verbs speak, talk are not used to introduce indirect speech.

There are some other verbs which introduce indirect speech: reply that, declare, remind, remark, deny, promise, assure, admit, explain to, report, boast, whisper, insist, shout etc.

INDIRECT IMPERATIVES (OREDERS, COMMANDS, REQUESTS, ADVICE)

An order, command or request is rendered in indirect speech by an infinitive, used after a reporting verb.

You mention the person addressed as the object of the verb before the infinitive:

Jim told me to ring him up. He asked her to marry him. He advised his client to buy the car.

If the person addressed is not indicated in direct speech it can be supplied from the context.

Orders, requests, etc. in indirect speech are introduced by the verbs: tell, order, ask, beg, command, persuade, warn, request, remind, invite, advise.

They begged to be let in. He ordered to let them in.

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If the order, request or command is negative, you put ‘not’ before the to-infinitive:

He begged not to blame him.

She told the children not to touch anything in the room.

To express an emphatic and urgent request the verbs urge and implore are used.

She urged the lawyer to send the paper.

Note: a to-infinitive can also be used after the verbs intend, plan, want, hope, decide, prefer, forget, to report statements.

She hoped to marry him soon. He didn't want to leave. They planned to marry in June.

INDIRECT QUESTIONS

If a general question is reported, the object clause reporting it in indirect speech is joined to the principal one by the conjunctions if or whether. The word order in the subordinate clause is direct.

“Did you see Ann?” he asked me. – He asked me if (whether) I had seen Ann. I asked if (whether) I could stay.

Only whether is used if an alternative question is reported:

“Do you want coffee or tea?” – She asks whether I want coffee or tea.

An indirect special question is introduced by the same adverb or pronoun as that used in the direct question. In this case it is treated as a conjunctive word. The word order in the object subordinate clause becomes direct.

“What are you doing?” she asks me. – She asks me what I am doing. “Where is John?” he asks his sister. – He asks his sister where John is.

Indirect questions are introduced by the verbs: ask, inquire, wonder, doubt, know, want to know and others.

The person addressed is usually mentioned in the sentence itself, or in a broader context, or can be understood from the situation. In indirect speech the person addressed is expressed by the object to the verb introducing indirect speech.

“What are you going to do?” she asks. – She asks us what we are going to do.

In rendering answers the verbs answer, reply, assure, say in reply and others of the kind are used.

He asked us if we knew the way and we assured him that we did.

INDIRECT EXCLAMATIONS

When exclamations are converted into indirect speech, the adverbial modifier shows the character of the exclamation such as joy, sorrow, surprise, doubt, astonishment etc.

The verbs cry, say, exclaim, ask, apologize, beg, thank and others are used.

“What fine weather!” she exclaimed. –

She exclaimed joyfully (cried, shouted, said) that the weather was fine.

“It's a pity you are leaving so soon!” she said. –

She said with pity that we were leaving soon.

GREETINGS AND LEAVE-TAKINGS IN INDIRECT SPEECH

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When converting greetings and leave-takings into indirect speech we use the verbs greet, welcome, exchange greetings, return one's greeting, say hallo, say good bye, bid

good morning (bade / bid, bidden), wish good night.

“Hello,” she said entering the room. – Entering the room she greeted us.

INDIRECT OFFERS, SUGGESTIONS AND ADVICE

Offers, suggestions and advice are introduced in indirect speech by the verbs advise, offer, suggest, propose, remind.

Note:

‘offer’ is used to say that you are willing to give, to pay, or to do something; ‘suggest’ is used to tell somebody your idea what they should do; after the verb

‘suggest’ gerund or a subordinate clause with subjunctive mood is used (but not an infinitive);

‘propose’ is more formal than ‘suggest’.

If after the verbs ‘suggest’ and ‘propose the person addressed is mentioned, the preposition ‘to’ is used.

“Would you like a cup of coffee?” he said. – He offered me a cup of coffee. “Let’s walk a little.” – She suggested walking a little. She suggested to us that we walk (should walk) a little.

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