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IV. Knowing Ins And Outs

Folk language of any nation preserves the experience of the ages in proverbs, sayings, or vernacular names which describe lots of commonest things in a rather metaphorical way. Some homely phrases can be universal in nature, i.e. “Like cures like” became the world-wide underlying principle of homeopathy, while others, which originated and gained currency in individual ethnic or national languages, present the greatest challenge a translator might face. In most cases a literal translation of folk expressions into another language turns out nonsensical, whereas analogies and periphrases often do the trick.

In the table below, complete the sayings on the left with matching words from the right. Give conventional Russian equivalents to these sayings.

In the table below, match the medical terms on the left with their folk names from the right. Translate the list of the matches into Russian and comment on the similarities and differences of the English and Russian names of the ailments.

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V. Enhancing Skills In English-Russian Interpretation

Render orally the following text:

Depression: Medication Breakthroughs

Depression is one of the most common and costly brain diseases, afflicting 18.8 million adults in the United States each year—that’s 10 percent of the country’s population over the age of 18. The av-

erage age of onset for a major depressive disorder is now in the mid-20s. This is a major change from past generations, when depression was most likely to strike during a person’s 40s or 50s.The disease exacts an enormous toll on individuals, families, and workplaces. Depressed people feel intensely sad and worthless and have a diminished sense of emotional well-being. They are at increased risk for substance abuse, suicide, eating disorders, and illnesses like heart disease and stroke.

Antidepressant medications, first discovered half a century ago, have helped depressed people regain some joie de vivre. The drugs most commonly used today target the brain chemical norepinephrine and the circuits that use the brain chemical serotonin. During the past decade, research funded by NIH has led to a new generation of these antidepressants—selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs)—that produce fewer serious side effects. But, like earlier drugs for depression, SSRIs can take several weeks to be effective and fail to work at all in about 30 percent of cases. In addition, more research is needed on their use in children because of reported SSRI side effects.

Scientists are now discovering potentially powerful strategies for entirely new classes of antidepressants, sometimes used in combination with psychotherapy, to dramatically improve the depressed brain’s functioning. One of the most promising of the new strategies is to target the body’s hormone system for regulating stress. Research funded by NIH has shown that this system is overactive in some depressed people, keeping stress chemicals in the bloodstream and harming the brain. Now scientists are trying to identify new drugs that can rebalance the stress system and protect or repair the brain. These drugs will provide relief from the incapacitating and often life-threatening effects of depression.

With modern advances, electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) has become a highly effective antidepressant treatment. In addition to investigating more precise ways of delivering ECT, researchers are exploring other types of brain stimulation techniques for the treatment of depression, such as transcranial magnetic stimulation, deep brain stimulation, and vagus nerve stimulation. Taking images of the brain in living people is providing

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a clearer understanding of how the regulation of critical brain chemicals becomes impaired in depression. Such research may enable scientists to “map” depression and perhaps discover biological markers that would lead to more individualized—and thus more effective—treatments.

As scientists hunt for new treatments for depression, they are finding that this illness shares some common traits with many other diseases and conditions, including such as Parkinson’s disease, Alzheimer’s disease, Cushing syndrome, chronic pain, and epilepsy. NIH research has also revealed thatdepressed people often have anxiety disorders, such as posttraumatic stress disorder as well as obsessive-compulsive disorder, and physical illnesses, such as heart disease, stroke, cancer, and diabetes.

Medical intervention is certainly not the only path. «Talk» therapy has proven to be highly effective. The models of therapy most frequently suggested for the treatment of depression are:

Interpersonal Therapy—A short-term treatment, usually lasting from 12 to 16 sessions, developed specifically for treating major depression. This kind of therapy focuses on correcting current social dysfunction rather than unconscious phenomena and on “here-and- now” factors that directly interfere with social relationships.

Cognitive Behavioral Therapy—This form of therapy states that the patient’s excessive self-rejection and self-criticism causes major depression. The therapist attempts to help change these negative thoughts or “dysfunctional” attitudes. (Critics of this form of therapy argue that the depressed patient’s pessimistic thoughts are a result of the depression, not a cause.)

Family Therapy—The depressed member is viewed as part of a “system” in the overall well being of the whole family. The family or system developed around the problem is the focus of this type of therapy.

Narrative Therapy—The focus in narrative therapy is less on individual pathology and concentrates on the larger socio-cultural factors that have led people into a depressed “lifestyle”. This type of therapy helps people “re-author” their lives based on how they prefer to be in the world. A therapist who practices narrative therapy attends to factors such as gender inequality, poverty, racism, corporate stress, the ever-present messages that help people to feel less than worthy, as well as the culture of perfectionism, community isolation, and lack of connection.

Dr. Maynard Benchley

Psychiatrist

Positive Results within One Year

Satisfaction Guaranteed or your Mania Back

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Solution-Oriented—In solution-oriented therapy, the focus is on what is working or going well in people’s lives, and on the times they are not depressed. The therapeutic conversation builds on these prob- lem-free moments, on what factors contribute to these moments, to help the depressed person create more of these times and expand them into other parts of their lives.

VI. Enhancing Skills In Russian-English Interpretation

Render orally the following text:

Психотерапия Депрессии

Серьезным аргументом, свидетельствующим о роли психотерапии в лечении депрессии, являются экспериментальные

данные, которые говорят о значении психологических факторов

вформировании терапевтической устойчивости депрессии к лекарственным препаратам. Эффективный курс психотерапии в долгосрочной перспективе часто более полезен, чем фармакотерапия, поскольку он обучает пациента, который приобретает навыки преодоления депрессии, учится распознавать ее приближение, предотвращать развитие ее рецидива.

Сточки зрения врача психотерапия депрессии должна быть

впервую очередь направлена на устранение ее симптомов. В качестве мишеней психотерапевтического воздействия при депрессии выделяют расстройства настроения, мышления, поведения, мотивационные и физиологические симптомы. Среди аффективных симптомов - печаль, тревога, чувство вины и стыда особенно чувствительны к психотерапевтическому воздействию. Для лечения депрессии широко и в достаточной мере эффективно используются следующие методы психотерапии:

Гештальттерапия—анализ процесса существования человека, способствующий созданию адекватных форм сознания и поведения, через оценку чувств, эмоций, переживаний;

Рациональная терапия, или Метод убеждений—использова- ние терапевтом логической аргументации при объяснении пациенту причин развития его невроза и последовательная коррекция искаженной “внутренней картины болезни” пациента;

Трансовая психотерапия—психотерапевтические приемы, использующие измененные состояния сознания в лечебных и профилактических методах. Возможности подобных состояний широко используются в целях самопознания, самовнушения и лечебного воздействия психотерапевта на пациента, повышая доступ к неосознаваемой информации и формируя поведенческие паттерны

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за счет расширения и трансформации внутреннего опыта;Арттерапия — анализ эмоций через творческое самовыражение.

Вышеперечисленные методы могут дополняться процедурами общевосстановительного характера:

Квантовая фотомодификация крови (УФО крови)—при воздействии на кровь светом с длиной волны, соответствующей ультрафиолетовому спектру, стимулируются процессы кроветворения, снижается вязкость крови, уменьшается гипоксия (недостаток кислорода), осуществляется положительное влияние на все звенья иммунитета;

Электросон—воздействие на центральную нервную систему пациента постоянным импульсным током низкой частоты и малой силы с короткой длительностью импульсов для восстановления вегетативного равновесия организма. Этот метод используется также при лечении артериальной гипертонии, гипотонии, язвенной болезни, бронхиальной астмы;

Цветотерапия—Лечебное воздействие цвета связано с влиянием электомагнитных волн определенной длины на органы человека

иуспешно используется при терапии стрессовых состояний, головных болей, нарушений сна, синдрома хронической усталости и реабилитации людей с психологическими проблемами;

Акупунктура или иглорефлексотерапия (ИТ) использует воздействие на биологически активные точки организма с целью нормализации важнейших систем организма: нервной, сосудистой, лимфатической, эндокринной, иммунной. Метод иглорефлексотерапии не дает побочных реакций, в отличие от медикаментозной терапии.

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VII. Solving Translation Problems

Some English and Russian words look more or less similar in form and/or in sound, at most due to their common origin, Latin or Greek. Since words like “organism“, “hygiene“, or “encyclopaedia“, occur in many languages and very often have the same meanings, they are called “international words“. The situation is very different, however, when it comes to translation of such words as “angina“, “anecdotal“, or “vector“. They do resemble certain Russian words, but careful! Angina is a medical term for стенокардия, anecdotal (reports)–единичные сообщения, vector–переносчик инфекции. Pairs like these are regarded as “pseudointernational words“ or the so-called “translator’s false friends“, for their similarity is deceptive and may lead to translation errors.

Copy out the underlined words and group them into: 1) international words; 2) words with partial coincidence in meanings; 3) “false friends“. Translate the entire text into Russian.

Medicinal Plants

Scientific interest in medicinal plants has burgeoned due to increased efficiency of new plant-derived drugs, growing interest in natural products and rising concerns about the side effects of conventional medicine. The use of various herbal remedies and preparations is described throughout human history representing the origin of modern medicine. Many conventional drugs originate from plant sources, such as aspirin derived from bark of willow, digoxin derived from foxglove, quinine derived from the bark of cinchona, and mor-

phine derived from the opium poppy.

Chinese herbalism, the most dominant of the ancient herbal traditions, is based on concepts of yin and yang and of Qi energy. Chinese herbs are considered “cooling” (yin), “stimulating” (yang) and are administered in combination according to the deficiencies or excesses of these qualities in the patient. Modern Western herbalism focuses on the effects of herbs on individual body systems rather than taking a holistic approach: herbs may be used for anti-inflammatory, haemostatic, antispasmodic, or immunostimulatory properties. It is estimated that around 80% of the worldwide population uses herbal medicines, mainly as self-prescribed products, for example, Valeriana officinalis for sleep disturbance and St John’s Wort for anxiety and stress.

Herbal medicine, also called phytomedicine, aims to return the body to a state of natural balance, so that it can start healing itself. Different herbs act on different systems of the body. Some of the herbs that have been scientifically studied and found to be effective and safe include:

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Echinacea—boosts the immune system and aids the body in fighting infection. It is used to treat ailments such as boils, fever and herpes. Echinacea is under investigation for its use in treating cancer and AIDS.

Dong quai (dang gui)—used for gynaecological complaints, such as premenstrual tension, menopause symptoms and period pain.

Garlic—can be used to reduce the risk of heart disease by lowering blood fats and cholesterol levels. The an- tibiotic and antiviral properties of garlic mean that it is also used to fight colds, sinusitis and other respiratory infections.

Ginger—many studies have shown ginger to be useful in treating nausea, including motion sickness and morning sickness.

Ginkgo biloba—commonly used to treat poor blood circulation and tinnitus (ringing in the ears). Some studies have found Ginkgo biloba to be effective in treating neurological disorders, such as memory loss and Alzheimer’s disease.

Ginseng—generally used for debility and weakness, for example during recovery from illness. It can be used to reduce blood pressure and cholesterol levels. Some studies show that ginseng can also boost immunity, improve mental functioning and speed the healing processes of the body.

Hypericum, commonly known as St John’s Wort, is just as effective as some synthetic antidepressants in treating mild to moderate depression. It is also effective for anxiety and insomnia. Research is currently focusing on hypericum’s antiviral properties and its effect on AIDS.

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Herbal remedies are taken internally or applied to the skin. Fresh herbs can also be incorporated into the diet. There are various methods of intensive herbal treatment:

Tinctures are made by soaking the flowers, leaves, or roots of the chosen herbs in alcohol.

Infusions are less concentrated than tinctures and are made by soaking an herb in hot water for 10 to 15 minutes. The resulting infusion can be used as a tea, or it can be applied externally to the skin.

Cold infusion involves soaking an herb in cold water for a long period, from 2 to 12 hours. It can then be either swallowed or applied to the skin.

Decoctions are similar to infusions but are made from roots, barks, nuts, and seeds.

Poultices are pastes made from bruised fresh herbs or dried herbs moistened with hot water. They are placed on a clean piece of cotton and then on the affected area.

Plant-derived biopharmaceuticals are cheap to produce and store, easy to scale up for mass production, and safer than those derived from animals and microorganisms. The use of herbal medicines has become a part of the mainstream all over the world. Some use herbal products with conventional medications, others use them as a replacement. Although the high technology approaches of conventional medicine are especially useful for acute disease treatment and emergency care, herbal medicine is more suitable for dealing with chronic ailments.

Many efforts have been made to commercialize production of the medical plant metabolites from plant-cell culture. Applications vary from the production of natural products and foreign proteins to a model for phytoremediation of organic and metal contaminants. Several biotechnology companies are now actively developing, field testing, and patenting plant expression systems.

VIII. Mastering English Grammar

Translate the sentences paying special attention to the equivalent-lack- ing grammatical structures:

1. The road to modern vision correction has been a long one, with several cultures contributing to development along the way.

2.History books reveal that as early as 460 BC myopic slaves were sold at a discount—vision defects reduced their value because there was no way to correct it.

3.The reading stone wasn’t much more than a magnifying glass, but back then, around 1000 AD, it was big news.

4.Songwriters in the middle ages even composed songs about the

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magnifying glass, it was considered so spectacular, no pun intended.

5.But it would take a couple hundred years for man to put lenses in front of the eyes to correct vision problems.

6.The first contact lenses were made of glass, rigid and difficult for many eyes to become accustomed.

7.But the consumer was not yet content, and perhaps this was what inspired research on surgical correction to obtain good eyesight.

8.But RK had some inherent problems and it never did become acceptable to treat higher degrees of nearsightedness with this procedure.

9.Then, in the early 1980’s technology again proved to be the catalyst for the improvements consumers were seeking.

10.If you wear glasses or contacts, imagine for a moment what life would be like right now, had these inventions not been made...

IX. Fostering Critical Thinking Skills

Read the text. Find additional material to expand the topic and write a commented essay in Russian on History of Vision Correction:

History Of Vision Correction

The road to modern vision correction has been a long one, with several cultures contributing to development along the way. History books reveal that as early as 460 BC myopic slaves were sold at a discount - vision defects reduced their value because there was no way to correct it. There is even speculation around the Emperor Nero, who held a huge emerald up to his eye as he watched the gladiators fight. However no one knows if this was the first beginnings of sunglasses

or if Nero simply wanted to show off his wealth.

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Around 1000 AD the first formal vision aid appeared in the form called a reading stone–a glass sphere that could be laid against reading material to magnify the letters. It wasn’t much more than a magnifying glass, but back then it was big news. Songwriters in the middle ages even composed songs about it, it was considered so spectacular, no pun intended.

It would take a couple hundred years for man to put lenses in front of the eyes to correct vision problems. This credit may go to the Chinese, as Marco Polo recorded seeing them with framed lenses which were kept on their heads by weighted cords hanging over the ears! But there is also evidence the Venetians were the first to produce glass that could be held in frames in front of the face and this concept was developed by Roger Bacon in Britain. And there is argument from the Italians, who give credit to Armati who died in 1317 and whose tombstone bears the inscription “the inventor of spectacles.“

By the 1700’s, glasses were purchased by gentry whether they needed them or not because they were considered a sign of intelligence and refinement. Lower classes were not permitted to wear glasses in public, even if they could afford them. Glasses were so valuable that they were bequeathed separately in the wills of the upper classes.

By the early 1950’s the first set of contact lenses appeared. They were made of glass, rigid and difficult for many eyes to become accustomed. Technology lent a helping hand with the advent of new plastics (for both contacts and glasses). But the consumer was not yet content, and perhaps this was what inspired research on surgical correction to obtain good eyesight.

The most commonly known procedure was RK, or Radial Keratotomy, a surgical operation to improve myopia by changing the curve of the cornea over the pupil. The surgeon made several deep incisions in the cornea in a radial or spoke-like pattern. Over the years, thousands of people had RK and many were very pleased with their outcome. But RK had some inherent problems and it never did become acceptable to treat higher degrees of nearsightedness with this procedure. Treating hyperopia (farsightedness) to any satisfactory degree was also not an option for this procedure.

Then, in the early 1980’s technology again proved to be the catalyst for the improvements consumers were seeking. Laser technology appeared on the scene! LASIK (laser-assisted in situ keratomileusis) uses a computer-guided laser to precisely sculpt the surface of the cornea. Nearly 15 years later - after much research, testing and refining of techniques—most consumers now have a safe, practical option to correct vision problems that include not only myopia and astigmatism, but hyperopia as well. People with a wide range of vision problems now seek this procedure to free themselves from the or contacts, depend-

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