In the town

In the streets, roads and squares of the town we see people walking and vehicles driving. The vehicles are: trams, buses, trolley-buses, taxi and motor-cars, motor-cycles, motor-scooters and bicycles.

Along the streets there are street lamps, at the corners of the streets there are traffic lights. The street lights are switched on when it gets dark; they are switched off hen it gets light. When the red traffic light is switched on, the traffic stops; when the green light is switched on, the vehicles drive on.

Along the streets we also see bus, trolley-bus and tram stops. This is where people get on and off. People wait for buses, trams and trolley-buses at the stops. They get on and off public transport there. In the streets there are also Tube stations where people get on and off the under‑ground electric railway.

At big crossroads in large towns and cities there are subways for pedestrians, and fly-over for vehicles. There are sometimes subways for traffic, too. At nearly all street corners there are pedestrian crossings for people to cross the road.

Every year between one and two hundred thousand people are injured. These people are killed or in­jured in road accidents.

If you are in England and if you listen to the eight o’clock news you will often hear news of road accidents. You may hear something like this: “On Monday evening last, at about twenty minutes to ten, a cyclist was knocked down by a motor van at the junction of Oak Road and High Street, in London. The cyclist has since died from his injuries. Will anyone who saw the accident please commu­nicate with New Scotland Yard, telephone number White­hall one, two, four, two”.

Accidents are often caused by carelessness. There are rules that help to make the roads safe, but people do not always obey the rules. They are careless. If everybody obeys the rules, the roads will be much safer.

In Great Britain traffic keeps to the left. Motor-cars, motor-vans, buses and cyclists must all keep to the left of the road. In most countries traffic keeps to the right. Be­fore crossing the road, stop and look both ways. Look right, look left, look right again. Then, if you are sure that the road is clear, that there is nothing coming, it is safe to cross the road. If you see small children, or very old people, or blind people, waiting to cross the road, it is a kind act to help them cross the road in a safety place.

Traveling and Going through Customs

People began to travel ages ago. The very first travelers were explorers who went on trips to find wealth, fame or something else. Their journeys were very dangerous but still people kept on going to the unknown lands. Nowadays there are a lot of companies, which can organize your tour, or voyage wherever you like. They will take care about your tickets and make all the reservations needed. If you don’t speak the language of the country you’ll be given interpreters. With modern services you can go around the world you can choose the means of transport you like: plane, train, ship, bicycle or you can travel hiking.

Almost all people are fond of traveling. It is very interesting to see new places, other towns and countries. People may travel either for pleasure or on business. There are various means of traveling. For me there is nothing like travel by air; it is more comfortable, more convenient and, of course, far quicker than any other means. There is none of the dust and dirt of a railway or car journey, none of the trouble of changing from train to steamer and then to another train.

With a train you have speed, comfort and pleasure combined. From the comfortable seat of a railway carriage you have a splendid view of the whole countryside. If you are hungry, you can have a meal in the dining-car; and if a journey is a long one you can have a wonderful bed in a sleeper.

Traveling by ship is also very popular now. It is very pleasant to feel the deck of the ship under the feet, to see the rise and fall of the waves, to feel the fresh sea wind blowing in the face and hear the cry of the seagulls.

Many people like to travel by car. It is interesting too, because you can see many sights in a short time, you can stop when and where you like, you do not have to buy tickets or carry your suitcases.

A very popular means of traveling is hiking. It is traveling on foot. Walking tours are very interesting. Hitch-hiking is a very popular method of traveling especially among young people.

While traveling a tourist may find himself in different places where he must both observe certain rules and enjoy his rights. Let’s begin with the Customs house. Every country has its own customs regulations which stipulate what articles are liable to duty and what articles are duty‑free. Sometimes the articles liable to duty may be allowed as duty-free if the traveler does not exceed a certain fixed quota. Customs restrictions also include a list of prohibited articles. This is a list of items that may not be brought into or taken out of a country.

If you need these things badly you must have an official paper from proper authorities giving permission to take items, which fall under special customs restriction. This paper is known as an import or export license. A traveler is asked to declare such items. It means he must name the item, state its value and often particulars. The declaration is made either orally or in writing a special form. After paying a duty the traveler is given a receipt. As a rule personal belongings are duty-free. Sometimes a passenger’s luggage is carefully gone through in order to prevent smuggling. The formalities at the customs house usually take some time. Only after passing through the customs does one realize that his journey is drawing to an end or beginning.

Hotel

When you come to another country or city you can stay at your friend’s house or flat. But if you haven’t got any relatives or friends you may stay at a hotel. There are different sorts of hotels: luxury, resort, commercial, congress, airport, country house, guest house, motel, B&B. Besides, hotels may be 5-star, 4-star, 3-star ones. I’d like to speak about seaside and city hotels.

Before you arrive somewhere you can make arrangements about a room of the hotel you’ll choose. You can call at the hotel, send them a fax or make an order through Internet, its number can be found in the advertisement. If you haven’t done it, when you arrive at the hotel it is necessary to come up to the reception desk and ask about vacancies.

There are some rules of room ordering. First of all you must fill in an arrival card. In this card you must give information about yourself. Your name and surname, telephone number and address, to point out how long are you going to stay here. Also among the seaside hotels the best with club system. Usually on the territory of such hotels there are 4-5 storied buildings with single rooms, double rooms, and suites and separate there are family cottages. The area of such hotels is usually very big about 50 hectares. Club system allows taking free any soft drinks, food 24 hours a day, because everything is included into the price of the tour.

There are all day room services, dry cleaners, laundries. In the rooms there is a refrigerator, bathroom, a satellite TV and direct dial phone.

Also such hotels have their own place on the beach with comfortable sun beds .You can spend time riding horses, playing tennis, golf, polo, visiting shops, which are usually situated in the territory of the hotels.

In the evenings you can go to the disco or to the restaurant. The menu in the restaurants including different cuisine’s such as: French, Spanish, Chinese, Turkish, Russian and so on. You can order a yacht tour to some historical places (if any) or something like that. After visiting such hotels you’ll return home happy and refreshed.

Home and Foreign Holidays and Traditions

Every country has its own traditions and superstitions. In Britain traditions play more important part in the life of people than in some other countries. English are proud of their traditions and carefully keep them up. There is a big difference between American and British people. They say an Englishman in America is respected: Americans like his accent and his country. An American in England is thought to be a little strange because of his behavior and his language. To the English their private lives, holidays, gardens and animals are important. For American the work is the most important thing in life. And in England you can hear the most extraordinary excuse not to go to work, for example “My dog’s got a cold”. The English are a nation of stay-at-homes. There is no place like home. The Englishman is never tired to say ‘My house is my castle.’ The Americans are different. They are more open, they speak their minds. If they don’t like something, they actually tell it directly. Not like the British, who might think one thing and say another. Americans start conversations with people in the street, in the subway; they are more enthusiastic. American customs underline independence and freedom of the nation. Every country is also known for its food. England is noted for its pudding, bacon, marmalade, porridge and five-o’clock-tea. America is the country of Coca-Cola, hamburgers and chewing gum.

There are international holidays which are celebrated in all countries world-wide. They are: Christmas, New Year, Easter and St. Valentine’s Day. There are also some special holidays which are usually celebrated in a particular country when people all over the country do not work and have special celebrations. It is very important to follow special traditions, because they unite people. Public holidays in Britain are called bank holidays, because the banks as well as most of the offices and shops are closed. The most popular holiday is Christmas. Every year the people of Norway give the city of London a present. It’s a big Christmas tree and it stands in Trafalgar Square. Central streets are beautifully decorated. The fun starts the night before, on the 24th of December. Traditionally this is the day when people decorate their trees. Children hang stockings at the end of their beds, hoping that Father Christmas will come down the chimney during the night and fill them with toys and sweets.

New Year’s Day is less popular in Britain than Christmas, yet it has a joyful celebration in Ukraine. People stay awake until after midnight on December, 31 to watch the Old Year out and the New Year in. Many parties are given on this night. Theatres, night clubs and streets are crowded. In every home there is a New Year tree glittering with colored lights and decorations. Children always wait for Father Frost to come and give them a present.

In different countries according to their traditions and history, there is a set of various national holidays. But there is one thing, which unites all of them: a holiday is always fun and pleasure.

Ukraine

Ukraine is a rich farming, industrial and mining region in south-eastern Europe. The Ukrainian Parliament passed a declaration of sovereignty in July, 1990, and in August, 1991, declared Ukraine an independent state. Its population is about 45 mln people. The capital of Ukraine is Kyiv. Ukraine has its own armed forces, and maintains its own diplomatic relations with foreign countries. Ukraine covers about 603.700 sq. km being larger than any country in Western Europe. From east to west Ukraine stretches for more than 1300 km and from north to south for almost 900 km. It borders on Belarus and Russia on the north and on the east. In the south it is bounded by the Black Sea and the Sea of Azov. In the west Ukraine borders on Moldova, Rumania, Hungary, Slovakia and Poland.

Administratively, Ukraine is divided into 24 regions and the Autonomous Republic of Crimea. Ukrainians make up less than three fourths of the population; Russians constitute around 22%, Jews around 1%, and there are Polish, Belarusian, Moldovan, and Hungarian minorities. More than half of the population is urban. The majority of those practicing a religious faith belong to a branch of Orthodox Christianity.

Ukraine is in ideal geographical position for the development of its resources, lying between 440 and 520 latitude north, on the same latitude as the USA, Britain. The climate is mild and warm, with a hot summer and a cold winter. Together with its fertile black soil, this makes it ideal for the development of intensive agriculture. Ukraine’s steppe is one of the chief wheat-producing regions of Europe, and the area was long known as the “breadbasket of the Soviet Union”. Other major crops include corn, rye, barley, potatoes, sugar beets, sunflowers, and flax.

The main part of Ukraine is located in the watershed of the Dnieper-River, which divides Ukraine into two parts: Right-Bank and Left-Bank Ukraine. Ukraine’s proximity to the Black Sea and the presence of large navigable rivers running through its territory has promoted the development of trade and culture. The territory of Ukraine is criss-crossed by railroads and highways, oil and gas pipelines and high-voltage transmission lines – all of which ensure close economic ties with Eastern and Western Europe. Ukraine is a highly industrialized country, whose economic potential is great.

Kyiv is the capital of our country. It is the largest city in the Ukraine. More than three million people live there. Kyiv was founded more than 1500 years ago. It is the political, economic, industrial and cultural centre of our country. In Kiev there are many museums, monuments, theatres, cinemas, libraries and palaces. Thousands of students study in this city. The Kyiv-Mohila Academy, the Kiev Polytechnic University, many other institutions of higher education are at their disposal.

Kyiv is situated on the banks of the river Dnieper. The city is very green. It is one of the most beautiful cities of Ukraine. Supreme Council of Ukraine, the President and the Government are located in Kyiv. Ambassadors of many countries live here too.

Khreschatyk is the main street of Kyiv. It is not very long, but it is wide and straight. A lot of people visit Khreschatyk every day, but especially crowded the street is on weekends. Some of people go shopping because there are many good shops there. Others go to the cinema, watch the fountains or sit on the benches. In the evening many people walk along Khreschatyk. There you can see many bright lights. People like it because it is nice, green and full of attractions.

Ukrainians are proud that our capital is one of the best and oldest cities in the world.

English-speaking countries

Learning a foreign language isn’t an easy thing. It’s a long and difficult process that takes a lot of time and efforts. Nowadays it’s especially important to know foreign languages, namely English. Over 300 million people speak it as a mother tongue. The native speakers of English live in Great Britain, the United States of America, Australia and New Zealand. English is now the dominant or official language in over 60 countries, and is represented in every continent and in the three major oceans – Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific.

English is the world language. The present-day world status of English is the result of two factors: the expansion of British colonial power, which peaked towards the end of the 19th century, and the emergence of the United States as the leading economic power of the 20th century.

English is a wonderful language. It’s the language of the great literature, the language of William Shakespeare, Charles Dickens and others. The great German poet Goethe once said, “He, who knows no foreign language, doesn’t know his own one”. That’s why in order to understand oneself and environment one has to learn foreign languages.

There are many different reasons why people study foreign languages, English in particular. Here are some of them: to travel abroad; to get good job; to have something to do in your spare time; to be better educated; to be familiar with social and cultural life of other countries; to be able to participate in conversations with foreigners. Besides, half of the world’s scientific literature is in English. It has replaced French in the world of diplomacy and German in the field of science. English is one of the official languages of the United Nations Organization and other political organizations.

It’s the language of computer technology, international air traffic control, maritime, politics, and emergency services. English is the chief language of international business and academic conferences, and the leading language of international tourism. It is the main language of popular music, advertising, satellite broadcasting, and video games. The language is not just a subject learnt in the classrooms. It’s something which is used in real life situations.

Learning foreign languages opens up opportunities and careers that didn’t even exist some years ago. Knowing English can help us to find a job in such fields as science and technology, foreign trade and banking, international transportation communication, teaching, librarian science and others. A more general aim is to broaden our intellectual and cultural horizons.

Money, Currency, Finance

Money is defined as commodity accepted as a medium of economic exchange. It is the medium in which prices and values are expressed; it circulates from person to person and from country to country, thus facilitating trade. Throughout history various commodities have been used as money, including seashells, beads, and cattle. Aztecs used cacao beans. Norwegians once used butter. The early US colonists used tobacco leaves and animal hides (settlers traded deer hides – the origin of our modern word for money: “bucks”). The people of Paraguay used snails. Roman soldiers were paid with salt. Human slaves have also been used as currency around the world. In the 16th century, the average exchange value of a slave was 8000 pounds of sugar.

The modern monetary system has its roots in the gold of medieval Europe. In the Middle Ages, gold and gold coins were the common currency. However, the wealthy found that carrying large quantities of gold around was difficult and made them the target of thieves. To avoid carrying gold coins, people began depositing them for safekeeping with goldsmiths, who often had heavily guarded vaults where they stored their valuable inventories of gold. The goldsmiths charged a fee for their services and issued receipts, or gold notes, in the amount of the deposits. Exchanging these receipts was much simpler and safer than carrying around gold coins. In addition, the depositors could retrieve their gold on demand.

Goldsmiths during this time became aware that few people actually wanted their gold coins back when the gold notes were so easy to use for exchange. They therefore began lending some of the gold on deposit to borrowers who paid a fee, called interest. These goldsmiths were the precursors to our modern fractional reserve banking system.

In the late 18th and early 19th century, banks began to issue notes redeemable in gold or silver, which became the principal money of industrial economies. Temporarily during World War I and permanently from the 1930s, most nations abandoned the gold standard. To most individuals today, money consists of coins, notes, and bank deposits.

Regardless of what asset is recognized by an economic community as money, in general it serves three functions:

• Money is a medium of exchange (for payments between consumers, businesses, and government);

• Money is a measure of value (or purchasing power, the prices paid for goods and services);

• Money is a store of value (for measuring the economic worth of current income deferred for spending in future years).

In recent years a new type of money appeared – electronic money. Electronic payment systems, already in place for use by credit-card processors, were adapted in the 1990s for use in electronic commerce (e-commerce) on the Internet. Such “digital cash” payments allow customers to pay for on-line orders using secure accounts established with specialized financial institutions; related technology is used for on-line payment of bills.

Job Hunting

Getting a job is a very hard period in the life of most people. Companies choose an employee from hundreds of candidates according to special rules, that’s why there are special ‘typical’ factors, influencing employer’s choice. Among such factors are: age, sex, experience, family background and marital status, personality and references.

If you’re to go on interview tomorrow, sleep well before it and don’t forget your CV at home – is the basic rule. What’s more, you should follow corresponding dress code for the interview.

Some companies don’t want to hire a man, who follows every advice. To illustrate this, we can quote Artemiy Lebedev, the most famous Russian web-designer: ‘If you enclose a standard stupid resume, written by the rules of American bureaucracy, we would delete it immediately after receiving. If your CV is composed according to all rules, we wouldn’t choose you, as we might think, that your profession is to acquire a job.’

After getting a job, you may have some unexpected troubles with boss, too: e.g. if you dye your hair or wear something not appropriate. The best solution of such situation is to ask a trade union for advice, which can always help you in your fight with an employer. Of course, if you affect company discipline not coming in time or working bad, your dismissal wouldn’t be unfair.

To conclude: it is sometimes hard not only to get a job, but also to work in the staff, and if you don’t want to be laid off, you should follow company rules, it is a must.

PART II

GRAMMAR THEORY

The Article

Артикль

Артикль – це службова частина мови, що вживається з іменниками. В англійській мові є два артиклі – означений (definite – the) та неозначений (indefinite – a, an).

Артикль a, an (перед іменниками, що починаються на голосний, наприклад: an apple, an hour) походить від слова one – один і вживається з іменниками, про які йде мова вперше.

Артикль theвживається з іменниками, про які вже йшла мова, або з назвами предметів – єдиних у своєму роді. Наприклад: I have a house. The house I live in is made of bricks.

Пам’ятка:

Якщо перед іменником стоїть прикметник, артикль уживають перед прикметником: Thisisabook.This is an interesting book.

Уживання неозначеного артикля a (an):

1. Уживають лише перед злічуваними іменниками, що стоять в однині.

2. Перед назвами професій: She is a doctor.

3. Перед деякими числівниками: a million, a hundred, a thousand, a half, a third.

4. В окличних реченнях після слова What: What a fine day!

5. Після слів such, quite: It was such a cold weather yesterday! He is quite a child.

6. Зі словами few, little: We had a few books.

Уживання означеного артикля the:

1. Уживають, якщо іменник означає єдиний у своєму роді об’єкт: the Sun, the Earth, the East, the North, the West.

2. Якщо іменник означає предмет, про який йде мова в конкретній ситуації: Putthepenonthetable.

3. Перед порядковими числівниками: My flat is on the second floor.

4. Для утворення найвищого ступеня порівняння прикметників / за умови вживання Present Perfect Tense Active Voice: It’s the biggest bear I’ve ever seen in my life!

5. Перед назвами морів, річок, каналів, океанів, пустель, гір: The Alps, the Atlantic Ocean, the Black Sea, the Dnipro.

6. Перед назвами країн, регіонів, груп островів, що вжито в множині: the USA, the Bahamas, the Netherlands, the Congo, the Sudan, the Caucasus, the Crimea.

7. Перед назвами газет і журналів: the Guardian, the Times.

Пам’ятка:

Словосполучення з артиклем the:

to (at) the cinema / shop / theater / market;

to the left / right; in the middle / corner, проте in front;

in the morning / afternoon / evening; проте at night / at half past five / at a quarter past five;

to (in) north / south / west / east.

Відсутність артикля

1. Артикль не вживають, якщо перед іменником стоїть присвійний / вказівний займенник: This is my book.

2. Якщо перед іменником стоїть іменник в присвійному відмінку: My son’s hair is red.

3. Якщо перед іменником стоїть заперечення no: There’s no peaches left in the fridge.

4. Якщо після іменника стоїть кількісний числівник: Open your books at page ten.

5. Перед назвами наук, навчальних дисциплін: I study English / She learns History.

6. Перед назвами місяців, днів тижня: in September / on Friday.

7. Перед власними іменами: Smith, Nick, George, проте: the Browns / the Whites (сім’я Браунів, Уайтів – усі члени родини).

8. Перед іменниками, що не можна перерахувати: peace, freedom, happiness, air, love, water.

Пам’ятка:

Відсутність артикля у словосполученнях:

at / for / after / before breakfast, lunch, dinner, supper;

to have breakfast / lunch / dinner / supper;

(to go to) at school / work / home;

to play football / chess / guitar, проте to play the piano / the violin.

Noun. Plural of Nouns

Іменник. Множина іменника

Іменник – це самостійна частина мови, що називає предмет і відповідає на запитання хто, що. Наприклад: а pen, a table, an engineer, a book.

Number (Число)

Іменники в англійській мові поділяють на злічувані (countable) та незлічувані (uncountable). Вони мають форми однини (singular) та множини (plural).

Злічувані іменники означають предмети, які можна порахувати: a chair, a question.

Незлічувані іменники – це назви речовин та багатьох абстрактних понять, які не можна порахувати: water, milk, friendship, freedom.

Способи утворення множини іменника:

однина		множина		правила утворення множини іменника
Student		students		1. Додаванням закінчення –sдо однини іменника.
Name		names
Bus		buses		2. Додаванням закінчення –esдо іменника в однині, що закінчується на –s, –ss, –x, –sh, –ch, –o.
Class		classes
Bush		bushes
Branch		branches
Hero		heroes
Box		boxes
Винятки: photo – photos / piano – pianos / radio – radios
City	cities		3. Шляхом заміни y на i з попереднім приголосним та додаванням закінчення –es; якщо y передує голосний – змін немає.
property	properties
Key	keys
way	ways
Wife	wives		4. Шляхом заміни f на vта додаванням закінчення –s, –ss.
Leaf	leaves
Wolf	wolves
Knife	knives
Винятки: roof – roofs / chief – chiefs / kerchief – kerchiefs / safe – safes
man	men		5. Шляхом додавання закінчення –enта зміни кореневого голосного.
woman	women
Foot	feet
Tooth	teeth
Goose	geese
Mouse	mice
Louse	lice
Ox	oxen
child	children
phenomenon	phenomena		6. Іменники, запозичені з грецької та латинської мов, збереглися в англійській мові без змін.
Datum	data
Radius	radii
Nucleus	nuclei
Crisis	crises
Basis	bases
Analysis	analyses
daughter-in-law	daughters-in-law		7. У складних іменниках форми множини набуває головний іменник; якщо складний іменник утворений з інших частин мови, то закінчення –sдодають у кінці слова.
school-mate	school-mates
forget-me-not	forget-me-nots
merry-go-round	merry-go-rounds

Іменники sheep / deer / swine / fishта назви деяких порід риб мають однакову форму в однині та в множині.

Іменники, що виражають абстрактні поняття, уживають тільки в однині: chalk / silver / peace / courage / advice / knowledge / information / news / progress / money.

Іменники, що складаються з двох рівних або подібних частин, уживають тільки в множині: spectacles / trousers / scissors / goods / clothes / contents / wages.

Пам’ятка:

this is – these are / that is – those are / there is – there are / it is – they are

Case (Відмінок)

В англійській мові є два відмінки іменників: загальний (the Common Case) і присвійний (the Possessive Case).

Присвійний відмінок відповідає на запитанняwhose, у його формі вживають переважно іменники, що означають людей і тварин. Такий відмінок утворюється додаванням до іменника в однині апострофа та закінчення –sабо за допомогою of-phrase.

однина	множина	утворення за допомогою of-phrase (одн / мн)
the child’s ball	the children’s balls	ball of the child / balls of the children
the woman’s friend	the women’s friends	friend of the woman / friends of the women
my uncle’s car	my uncles’ cars	car of my uncle / cars of my uncles
sister’s problem	sisters’ problems	problem of sister / problems of sisters

Adjective. Degrees of Comparison of Adjectives

Прикметник. Ступені порівняння прикметників

Прикметник – це самостійна частина мови, що виражає ознаку, якість або властивістьпредмета і відповідає на запитання який, яка.

В англійській мові розрізняють прості прикметники (Simple Adjectives) – good, red, new, unkind, похідні (Derived Adjectives) – beautiful, foolish, hopeless і складні (Compound Adjectives) – snow-white, deaf-mute, cold-hearted, easy-going, four-wheeled.

За граматичними ознаками прикметники поділяють на якісні (Qualitative Adjectives) – вказують на якість, ознаки та властивості речей: grey, big, clever та відносні (Relative Adjectives) – вказують на якість і ознаки речей: a wooden bench, a difficult task.

Прикметники в англійській мові не змінюються ні за числами, ні за родами, ні за відмінками: a round table, young men, an old carpenter. Вони змінюються лише за ступенями порівняння. Якісні прикметники в англійській мові мають основну форму (positive degree), вищий ступінь порівняння (comparative degree) та найвищий (superlative degree).

Способи утворення ступенів порівняння прикметників

прикметник	основна форма (Positive Degree)	вищий ступінь (Comparative Degree)	найвищий ступінь (Superlative Degree)
- er / - est
1. Односкладові	short big	shorter bigger	the shortest the biggest
2. Двоскладові, що закінчуються на -er, -y, -ow, -le	early clever simple narrow	earlier cleverer simpler narrower	the earliest the cleverest the simplest the narrowest
3. Двоскладові з наголосом на другий склад	polite severe	politer severer	the politest the severest
more / the most
1. Багатоскладові	important handsome attractive easy-going	more important more handsome more attractive more easy-going	the most important the most handsome the most attractive the most easy-going
Винятки:	much / many little good bad far	more less better worse further	the most the least the best the worst the furthest

Інші способи вираження порівняння

1. Для порівняння двох предметів однакової якості прикметник в основній формі ставлять між парним сполучником as…as. Щоб уникнути повторення іменника, вживають займенник one.

e.g. This house is as big as that one. This lady is as attractive as that one. I don’t know whom I like more.

2. Для вираження нерівного ступеня якості вживають сполучник not so…as.

e.g. Our project is not so profitable as theirs. His answer is not so sure as hers.

• Після вищого ступеня вживають сполучник than (ніж).

e.g. This summer is hotter than the last one. This language is more difficult to learn than that one.

3. Порівняльний сполучник the…theв поєднанні з прикметником або з прислівником у вищому ступені перекладають що…то.

e.g. The more I practice the better I speak this language. The more he looked at her the more he liked her.

4. Для посилення вищого ступеня вживають прислівники much / far,які ставлять перед прикметником у вищому ступені і перекладають значно, більше.

e.g. This story is much (far) more interesting than that one. This trunk is much (far) heavier than that one.

Pronoun

Займенник

Займенники – це слова, які не називають предмет, особу, якість та явища, а тільки вказують на них. Їхнє значення залежить від контексту: Where is she? – She is in the room.

В англійській мові займенники поділяють на:

1. personal (особові): I / he / she / it / we / you / they;

2. possessive (присвійні): my / his / her / its / our / your / their;

3. reflexive (зворотні): myself / himself / herself / itself / yourself / ourselves / themselves;

4. reciprocal (взаємні): each other (implies only two) / one another (implies more than two persons);

5. demonstrative (вказівні): this (these) / that (those) / such / the same;

6. interrogative (питальні): who / whose / what / which;

7. defining (означальні): each / every / everyone / everything / all / either / both / other / another;

8. indefinite (неозначені): some / somebody / something / someone / any / anybody / anything / anyone / one;

9. negative (заперечні): no / none / neither / nobody / no one / nothing.

Personal Pronouns (Особові займенники)

Називний відмінок (Nominative Case)	Об’єктний відмінок (Objective Case)
I – я	me – мене / мені
he – він	him – його / йому
she – вона	her – їй / її
it – він / вона / воно	it – його / йому / їй / її
you – ти, ви	you – вас / вам / тебе / тобі
we – ми	us – нам / нас
they – вони	them – їх / їм

e.g. I’m speaking to him / He is discussing the matter / Did you invite them to the party? / They are thinking about her.

Possessive Pronouns (Присвійні займенники)

Залежна форма (Conjoint Form)	Незалежна форма (Absolute Form)	Українські відповідники
my	mine	мій / моя / моє / мої
his	his	його (чоловічій рід)
her	hers	її
its	----	його (середній рід), її
our	ours	наш / наша / наше / наші
your	yours	ваш / ваша / ваше / ваші / твій / твоя / твоє / твої
their	theirs	їхній / їхня / їхнє / їхні

e.g. Where are all our things? – Mine are there. They use their notes. It’s no business of yours.

Reflexive Pronouns (Зворотні займенники)

Види зворотних займенників подано вище.You call yourself a gentleman. / He doesn’t like to talk about himself. / I’ve seen it myself. / She told herself that it was true. / They did it themselves.

Reciprocal Pronouns (Взаємні займенники)

Види взаємних займенників подано вище. We loved each other very much. / We respect and trust each other. / They were looking at one another with great interest.

Demonstrative Pronouns (Вказівні займенники)

Види вказівних займенників подано вище. This watch is dear. / These raw materials come from abroad. / It is the same boy who showed us the way. / Why do you ask me such a question?

Interrogative Pronouns (Питальні займенники)

Види питальних займенників подано вище. Who told you about it? / Whom do you trust? / What’s he doing? / Which of them is a doctor? / Whose money is this?

Defining Pronouns (Означальні займенники)

Види означальних займенників подано вище. All the teachers were present. / Each has his own place. / We jog a kilometer every day. / Everybody has already come. / On either side of the river lies a valley. / The other questions may be asked. / This pen won’t write. Give me another.

Indefinite Pronouns (Неозначені займенники)

Види неозначених займенників подано вище. They’ve got some money to buy this thing. / Have you got any ideas to discuss? / Is there anybody here? / We haven’t got any sugar left. / He got frightened because somebody knocked on his door. / Something’s wrong with my eyes, I don’t see anything. / They talk to us as they don’t know anybody here. / One must keep one’s word.

Negative Pronouns (Заперечні займенники)

Види заперечних займенників подано вище. She knows nothing. / No dictionary could help him as he was not smart enough. / I was ringing but no one answered. / None of the rooms were aired. / Neither of us mentioned him. / It was nobody’s house.