- •Theory of phonetics. Contents
- •II. Branches of phonetics.
- •III. Connection of phonetics with other sciences.
- •Topics for discussions:
- •I. The vocal mechanism of producing oral speech.
- •II. Groups of organs.
- •III. Segmental and suprasegmental phonetics.
- •Topics for discussions:
- •I. Speech sounds: phones, phonemes allophones.
- •II. Functions of phonemes.
- •III. The place of allophones in the sound system.
- •Topics for discussions:
- •I. The English articulation basis.
- •II. Classifications of Consonants.
- •III. Modifications of consonants in connected speech.
- •Topics for discussions:
- •I. Articulation features of the English and Russian consonants. Plosive
- •Affricates
- •Sonorants
- •Constrictive
- •Constrictive sonorants
- •II. The quantitative and qualitative analysis of the English and Russian consonant systems.
- •Topics for discussion:
- •II. The qualitative analysis of the English and Russian vowel systems. Front monophthongs
- •Back monophthongs
- •Central monophthongs
- •Diphthongs with [I]-glide
- •Diphthongs with [V]-glide
- •Diphthongs with [q]-glide
- •III. Modifications of Vowels in Connected Speech.
- •Topics for discussion:
- •I. The study of syllabic structure of English and Russian words (theories).
- •II. Syllable division.
- •Topics for discussion:
- •I. Word stress.
- •II. Types of stress.
- •III. Functional aspect of word stress.
- •IV Shift of stress.
- •Topics for discussion.
- •III. Rhythm.
- •Topics for discussion.
I. The vocal mechanism of producing oral speech.
Psychological → physiological → physical (acoustic) → reception →
→ transmission
Human speech is a result of a highly complicated series of events. The formation of the concept takes place at a linguistic level (in the brain of a speaker). This stage is called psychological. It starts with an idea (prelude). The message formed within the brain, the impulse goes from the back of our mind to organs of speech (it is transmitted along the nervous system to the speech organs). The human brain controls the behaviour of the articulating organs which effects in producing a particular pattern of speech sounds. The second stage is called physiological when the movements of the speech apparatus disturb the air stream thus producing sound waves. We move an air around. Speech organs move. Reception starts with the physical (or acoustic) stage. Any communication requires a listener, as well as a speaker. The last stages are the reception of the sound waves by the listener’s hearing physiological apparatus (ear drums start vibrating. While vibrating the ear drums are tuned in the same way as the tune of the speaker’s voice if your hearing is not defective) and the transmission of the spoken message through the nervous system to the brain (the ear drums respond to the pressure by reproducing the vibration. Thus the reception begins. The listener and the speaker sing the same tune). The linguistic interpretation of the information is conveyed.
Subconsciously we repeat for ourselves in inner speech what we hear (together with the speaker). Two sides of one process are very closely intervolved. It’s now proved that when we listen to somebody, we actually reproduce what is being said by the speaker.
II. Groups of organs.
1) The respiratory (or power) mechanism furnishes the flow of air which is the first requisite for the production of speech sounds. This mechanism is formed by the lungs, the wind pipe and the bronchi. The air-stream expelled from the lungs provides the most usual source of energy which is regulated by the power mechanism. Regulating the force of the air wave the lungs produce variations in the intensity of speech sounds. Syllabic pulses and dynamic stress are directly related to the behaviour of the muscles which activate this mechanism.
2) From the lungs through the wind pipe the air-stream passes to the upper stages of the vocal tract. First of all it passes through the larynx containing the vocal cords. The function of the vocal cords consists in their role as a vibrator set in motion by the air-stream sent by the lungs.
3) The opening between the vocal cords is known as the glottis. When the glottis is tightly closed and the air is sent up below it, the so-called glottal stop is produced (it reinforces or even replaces [p], [t], or [k] or even when it precedes the energetic articulation of vowel sounds). The most important speech function of the vocal cords is their role in the production of voice. It effects when the vocal cords are brought together and vibrate due to the pressure of air passing from the lungs. Compressed air forces an opening of the glottis and the following reduced air-pressure permits the vocal cords to come together again.
The more frequently the vocal cords vibrate the higher the pitch is. (The typical speaking voice of a woman is higher than that of a man because the vocal cords of a woman vibrate more frequently). But we are able to vary the rate of the vibration thus producing modifications of the pitch component of intonation. Even more, we are able to modify the size of the puff of air which escapes at each vibration of the vocal cords that is we can alter the amplitude of the vibration which causes changes of the loudness of the sound heard by the listener. If we talk about the increasing of speech, what we mean is increasing tenseness (pressure which is related to the listener as increase and loudness). Loudness is a hearer’s category, and the equivalent for the speaker would be tenseness.
4) From the larynx the air-stream passes to supraglottal cavities, that is to the pharynx, the mouth and the nasal cavities. The shapes of these cavities modify the particular speech sound.