Topics for discussion:

1. What are the most wide spread theories about syllables? Does any universal one exist?

2. How many types of syllables are there in English? How many syllables can a word consist of?

3. What does the syllabic division depend on?

4. Which functions does a syllable possess? What is the defining characteristic of the syllable?

Lecture VIII. Stress (accentual) structure of English words.

Key words:

1. obscure [qb'skjVq] – непонятный, смутный 2. criterion (criteria) [kraI'tIqrIqn] – кри- терий; 3. prominent['prPmInqnt] – выступаю- щий, выделяющийся; 4. contribute[kqn'trIbjut] – способство- вать, содействовать; 5. obtain[qb'teIn] – получать, дости- гать, приобретать; 6. inherent[In'herqnt] – присущий, неотъемлемый; 7. discourse['dIskLs] – рассуждение; 8. shift[SIft] – смещение; ;

9. diminish [dI'mInIS] – уменьшать, ослабевать 10. drop [drPp] – опускать; 11. predetermine ["prJdI'tE:mIn] – пред- определять, повлиять; 12. arrangement[q'reInGmqnt] – распо-ложение, распределение, классифика- ция; 13. distinction[dI'stINkSn] – распознава- ние, отличительная особенность; 14. convey[kqn'veI] – передавать, сооб- щать; 15. evaluative[I'vxljuqtIv] – оценочный; 16. manifest['mxnIfqst] – ясно показы-вать, делать очевидным, проявляться.

I. Word stress.

II. Types of stress.

III.Functional aspect of word stress.

IV Shift of stress.

I. Word stress.

The main idea of stress is to make a sound, a syllable or any other sequence of sounds more prominent than neighbouring sounds. According to A. C. Gimson, the effect of prominence is achieved by any or all of four factors: force, tone, length and vowel colour (Gimson A. C. An Introduction to the Pronunciation of English. – Ldn, 1975.). The dynamic stress implies greater force with which the syllable is pronounced. In the articulation of the stressed syllable greater muscular energy is produced by the speaker. The English linguists agree that in English word stress or accent is a complex phenomenon, marked by the variations in force, pitch, quantity and quality. The first component of stress is the force of articulation. Depending on the force of articulation the degree of stress varies from the main stress to secondary ones, from them – to zero stress. We hardly need any proofs. This however is not the case. Force is extremely important but it is not the only important factor.

For example, honey ['hPnI] They are controversial cases.

honey [ hPnI]

or канéчно, Варóнеж. It’s hard to tell which syllable is stronger: the stressed one or the preceding one.

The dynamic and the tonic features of English word stress prevail over the others. When the tonic or musical component of word stress is involved it is the change of pitch level that is significant in making the syllable prominent, but not the type of direction.

Let’s examine some examples. If the words 'export (n) and ex'port (v) are said on a level tone and each vowel with its own length, it is rather difficult to distinguish them. The tonic or musical component may be helpful in defining the place of stress in a word as it is observed within the syllable marked by the pitch change, which contributes to the syllable prominence.

'Export \ . Ex 'port . \

1) The placement of the pitch change marks the seat of the stress. It should be noted here that the very type of pitch change, its direction, doesn’t influence the word stress. For example,

\ Export . / Export ? –– ˙

The pitch direction is changed but the stress remains unchanged.

2) Certain distinctions of the vowel length and colour are reduced or lacking in unstressed syllables. The vowel of the stressed syllable is perceived as never reduced or obscure and longer than the same vowel in the unstressed syllables. Thus, the word “stress” or “accent” is also defined as qualitative where the vowel colour or quality is a means of stress and quantitative with relatively increased length of the stressed vowel. Compare the quality (colour) and quantity (length) of the same vowel in the words:

'Madam ['mxdqm], 'car-park ['kRpQ·k] or

úли,огó.

On the acoustic level the counterpart of force is the intensity of the vibrations of the vocal cords of the speaker which is perceived by the listener as loudness. Thus the greater energy with which the speaker articulates the stressed syllable in the word is associated by the listener with greater loudness. The acoustic counterpart of voice pitch and length are frequency and duration respectively.

3) In English the quantitative component of word stress is not of primary importance because of the non-reduced vowels in the unstressed syllables which sometimes occur

in English words. For example,

'Architect ['RkItekt], 'transport ['trxnspLt], partake ['pRteik], can'teen [kxn'tJn]. The sounds are not reduced; they seem to be stressed, but they are not marked. If a vowel is not reduced and not marked as a stressed vowel it doesn’t mean it’s unstressed. The degree of stress can be of different nature:

1. the main stress / the primary stress (red [red]);

2. a strong secondary stress ("consti'tution ["kPnstI'tjHSn];

3. a weak secondary stress / tertiary stress ("edu'cation ["edju'keISn]);

4. a zero stress / absence of stress. ('never ['nevq]).

The criteria of the difference of a strong secondary stress and a weak one are rather vague.

The stressed syllables are often said to be the most prominent syllables in the word. It shouldn’t be mixed with the notion “stressed”. It is common knowledge that sounds of speech have different degrees of sonority. Vowels are more sonorous than consonants. Open vowels are more sonorous than closed ones. Sorority is the inner quality of vowels which is not directly connected with the accentual structure of words

but with other articulatory characteristics, it contributes to the effect of prominence.

Another characteristic of a vowel is historical (traditional) length of vowels. Naturally the historical length of vowels is the vowel inner quality which shouldn’t be mixed with the quantitative characteristics of word stress. A traditionally long sound is present in the stressed syllable and a traditionally short sound is present in the unstressed syllable. For example,

In'crease [In'krJs], be'lieve [bI'lJv], easy ['JzI].

To sum up prominence in speech is a broader term than stress. It is obtained by the components of word stress such as the loudness, the length, the quality of the vowel plus the inherent sonority of the vowel and its historical length. In a discourse the effect of prominence may be strengthened by the melody which is the component of intonation.

Another important feature of the word stress is its placement. The word stress in English as well as in Russian is not only free but it may also be shifting, performing the semantic function of differentiating lexical units, parts of speech, grammatical forms. It is worth noting that in English word stress is used as a means of word-building; in Russian it marks both word-building and word formation. For example,

'import – to im'port 'habit – ha'bitual 'music – mu'sician

дóма – домà вóды – водьí чýдная – чуднáя

In Germanic languages the word stress originally fell on the initial syllable or the second syllable, the root syllable in the English words with prefixes. This tendency was called recessive. The rhythm of alternating stressed and unstressed syllables gave birth to the rhythmical tendency in the present day English which caused the appearance of the secondary stress in the multisyllabic French borrowings. For example,

"Revo'lution, "organi'zation, as"simi'lation, etc.

It also explains the placement of primary stress on the third syllable from the end in three- and four-syllable words. For example, 'cinema, 'situate, im'possible.

The variability of the word accentual structure is multiplied in connected speech. The accentual structure of words may be altered under the influence of rhythm. For example,

An 'unpolished 'stone. But: The 'stone was un'polished.

'Open 'page six'teen. But: We 'counted 'sixteen 'toys.

The tempo of speech may influence the accentual pattern of words. With the quickening of the speed the carefulness of articulation is diminished, the vowels are reduced or elided, the secondary stress may be dropped. For example,

The 'whole organi'zation of the 'concert was to 'blame.

The variability of The English word accentual structure presents great difficulty for students of English. We should be acquainted with the four most widely spread accentual types of words and be aware of the modifications of word accentual patterns influenced by rhythm and tempo in connected speech.