III. Match the beginnings of the sentences to their ends using the information from the text.

1. This style was termed Gothic a) the late phase as Flamboyant

during the Renaissance because of... b) a passage at clerestory level

2. It lasted from the early 12th c) the Renaissance in the 15th c.

century to the advent of ... d) is probably the choir of Glo­ucester Cathedral

3. In France and Germany this style e) its association with the bar­barian north

is subdivided into ... f) the Early, High, and Late Gothic

4. The French middle phase is referred g) rich decoration and tracery

to as Rayonnant, ...

5. Canterbury cathedral retains ...

6. The Decorated style was

cha­racterized by ...

7. The first major surviving work of

the Perpendicular style ...

IV. Increase your vocabulary. Make some sentences of your own using these phrases.

• to be characterized by

• to be subdivided into

• to be combined with

• to become popular with

• to be of great beauty/complexity/importance

V. Ask your partner the following questions. Listen to his/her answers.

1. When did Gothic architecture develop?

2. What are the characteristic features of this style?

3. What is the first Gothic building?

4. How does the classification of the Gothic phases differ in France, Germany, and England?

5. What are the major monuments of Gothic architecture in England?

6. To what countries did the Crusaders carry Gothic?

7. What is meant by the Gothic Survival?

VI. Prove the following statements using the information from the text and your own erudition.

1. The abbey of Saint-Denis in Paris had a highly sophisticated ar­chitectural plan.

2. Canterbury Cathedral resembles that of Laon.

3. English architects preferred heavy surface decoration.

4. Gothic was essentially the style of the Catholic European countries.

5. There are the examples of the Gothic style in the Mediterranean.

VII. Give the English equivalents.

• ребристый свод;

• стрельчатая арка;

• арочный контрфорс;

• аббатство;

• лучистый (стиль);

• пламенеющий (стиль);

• верхний ряд окон, освещающий центр высокого помещения;

• ажурная каменная работа;

• более изобретательный;

• место хора в соборе;

• неф;

• часовня;

• крестоносцы;

• Средиземноморье;

• мирской, светский

VIII. Work in pairs. Interview your partner as an expert in Gothic architecture. Use the following words and expressions.

The Middle Ages; the barbarian north; the ribbed vault; the pointed arch; the flying buttress; the skill and precision; to be subdivided into; the most influential building; a cathedral; tracery designs; inventive; to come to an end; emphasis; chapel; the Crusaders; secular buildings; the Gothic Survival; Neo-Gothic.

Text B. Read the text and answer the question: What is required for the safety of the structure?

DESIGN CRITERIA

When the basic theory of static equilibrium for forces acting in any di­rection was first applied in structural design in the second half of the 18th century, the criterion of a safe design seemed obvious enough. The struc­ture would be safe if it could support its own weight, and perhaps the weight of a wagon passing over it, or of machinery on a floor, without overloading any crucial element — arch rib, beam, column, masonry pier, or tie rod. The strength of these elements could be assessed by loading specimens to failure, or by similarly loading specimens of the material if the strength of the element could then be estimated by simple proportion. For greater safe­ty, some factor would be allowed on the measured or estimated strengths.

During the 19century, loads other than the weight of the structure it­self became more important. The development of elastic theories of the behavior of the main structural elements and some complete structural systems called for further criteria to bypass the reliance on strength tests of these elements and systems. Tests were made to determine both wind loads and the effective loads imposed by moving locomotives, but the data ob­tained remained of limited and somewhat questionable validity for want of adequate understanding of the nature of these dynamic loads.

In the first half of the 20century, design criteria for particular classes of structure — like steel frames and reinforced-concrete frames — were

progressively codified for normal design in terms of design loads and al­lowable stresses.

In the last few decades, far more again has been learned about likely loads, particularly wind loads and earthquake shocks.

Text C. Read the text and speak on the reason of imitation of Gothic architecture.

NEO-GOTHIC

The architectural movement most commonly associated with Roman­ticism is the Gothic Revival, a term first used in England in the mid-19century to describe buildings being erected in the style of the Middle Ages and later expanded to embrace the entire Neo-Gothic movement.

The first clearly self-conscious imitation of Gothic architecture for rea­sons of nostalgia appeared in England in the early 18century. Buildings erected at that time in the Gothic manner were for the most part frivolous and decorative garden ornaments, actually more Rococo than Gothic in spirit. But, with the rebuilding beginning in 1747 of the country house Strawberry Hill by the English writer Horace Walpole, a new and signifi­cant aspect of the revived style was given convincing form; and, by the beginning of the 19century, picturesque planning and grouping provided the basis for experimentation in architecture. Gothic was especially suited to this aim. Scores of houses with battlements and turrets in the style of a castle were built in England during the last years of the 18century.

French architects, in particular, Viollet-le-Duc, who restored a range of buildings from the Sainte-Chapelle and Notre-Dame in Paris to the whole town of Carcassonne, were the first to appreciate the applicability of the Gothic skeleton structure, with its light infilling, to a modern age, and the analogy was not lost on subsequent architects at a time when the steel frame was emerging as an important element of structural engineering. Functionalism and structural honesty as ideals in the Modern move­ment were a legacy of the Gothic Revival.

Not surprisingly, the Gothic Revival was felt with most force in those countries in which Gothic architecture itself was most in evidence — En­gland, France, and Germany. Each conceived it as a national style, and each gave to it a strong and characteristic twist of its own.

Text D. Read the text and tell about the qualities of Neoclassical architecture.

NEOCLASSICISM

The classicism that flourished in the period of 1750-1830 is often known as Neoclassicism, in order to distinguish it from the classical architecture of ancient Rome or of the Renaissance.

The search for the intellectual and architectural truth characterized the period. Stylistically this began with an onslaught on Baroque architecture, which — with its emphasis on illusion and applied ornament — was felt to be manifestly untruthful.

Essentially representing a new taste for classical serenity and archaeo-logically correct forms, 18-century classicism manifested itself in all the arts.

The discovery, exploration, and archaeological investigation of classical sites in Italy, Greece, and Asia Minor were crucial to the emergence of Neoclassicism.

The centre of international Neoclassicism was Rome. The cradle of Ital­ian antiquities, it provided the stage, but the leading actors in the Neoclas­sical drama were French, German, or English; very little was contributed by Italians to this new movement. The centre of activity was the French Academy. The winners of the Academy's Prix de Rome went to Italy to study the monuments firsthand. The projects produced by the French Prix de Rome winners are characterized by their grandeur of scale; strict geo­metric organization; simplicity of geometric forms; Greek or Roman de­tail; dramatic use of columns, particularly to articulate interior spaces and create urban landscapes; and a preference for blank walls and the contrast of formal volumes and textures. The same qualities describe Neoclassical architecture as it was to emerge throughout Europe and in America.

Unit 6

Text A. Read the text and tell about the Renaissance in Italy and in Russia.

THE RENAISSANCE

The Renaissance began in Italy, where there was always a residue of clas­sical feeling in art.

Knowledge of the classical style in architecture was derived during the Renaissance from two sources: the ancient classical buildings, particularly in Italy but also in France and Spain and the treatise De architectura by the Roman architect Vitruvius. For classical antiquity and, therefore, for the Renaissance, the basic element of architectural design was the order, which was a system of traditional architectural units. During the Renais­sance five orders were used, the Tuscan, Doric, Ionic, Corinthian, and Composite, with various ones prevalent in different periods. For example, the ornate, decorative quality of the Corinthian order was embraced dur­ing the early Renaissance, while the masculine simplicity and strength of the Doric was preferred during the Italian High Renaissance.

On the authority of Vitruvius, the Renaissance architects found a har­mony between the proportions of the human body and those of their ar­chitecture. There was even a relationship between architectural proportions and the Renaissance pictorial device of perspective.

The concern of these architects for proportion caused that clear, mea­sured expression and definition of architectural space and mass that differentiates the Renaissance style from the Gothic and encourages in the spectator an immediate and full comprehension of the building.

In the early 15century an Italian architect Filippo Brunelleschi for­mulated linear perspective, which was to become a basic element of Re­naissance art. At the same time, Brunelleschi investigated ancient Roman architecture and acquired the knowledge of classical architecture and or­nament that he used as a foundation for Renaissance architecture.

His brilliant vork, the loggia of the Ospedale degli Innocenti (1419— 51) was the first building in the Renaissance manner; a very graceful ar­cade was designed with Composite columns, and windows with classical pediments were regularly spaced above each of the arches.

Donato Bramante's Tempietto San Pietro in Montorio (1502) symbol­ized the beginning of the High Renaissance style in Rome. Erected on the supposed site of the martyrdom of St. Peter, the Tempietto is circular in plan, with a colonnade of 16 columns surrounding a small cella, or enclosed in­terior sanctuary.

In 1505 Pope Julius II decided to rebuild St. Peter's, which was in a very poor condition. Bramante prepared plans for a monumental church and in 1506 the foundation stone was laid.

St. Peter's Cathedral is the largest church in the Christian world. It has 29 altars in addition to the high altar, interior length, 187m., width at front, 26,5 m., length of transept, 137 m. The dome (diameter, 42 m., height, 123 m. to the top of the lantern) was built by Michelangelo.

In Russia the Renaissance is represented by the works of Italian mas­ters (the Moscow Kremlin, the 15— 16cc.) The cathedral of the As­sumption was built in 1475—1479 by Aristotile Fioravante on the site of an old church dating back to the reign of Ivan Kalita. By combining the char­acteristic features of the Vladimir-Suzdal and early-Moscow style with Ital­ian Renaissance decoration and construction methods Fioravante produced a masterpiece of lasting beauty. Another example is the Cathedral of the Archangel Michael, designed by Alevisio Novi in 1505-1508.

The Granovitaya Palata Faceted Palace (1487—91) was built by Russian craftsmen according to the design of Italian architects Marco Ruffo, Aloisio da Carcano, and Pietro Antonio Solari. Its eastern facade is faced with faceted white stones, hence the name.

Vocabulary

to embrace — воспользоваться, выбирать

masculine — мужской, мужественный

authority — (зд.) авторитетное мнение, утверждение

device — средство

to cause — вызывать, являться результатом

to encourage — ободрять, поощрять, поддерживать

immediate — непосредственный, прямой; немедленный

comprehension — понимание

to acquire — приобретать

graceful — грациозный, изящный

arcade — аркада, сводчатая галерея

pediment — фронтон

martyrdom — мученичество

enclosed — окруженный, огороженный

sanctuary — святилище

to lay — (зд.) заложить фундамент

lantern — фонарь верхнего света

assumption — (рел.) успение

hence — отсюда; следовательно