XI. Ask your partner which architectural monuments he would like to see being in Rome.
Text В. Read the text and give definitions of trusses and space frames.
TRUSSES AND SPACE FRAMES
Trusses and space frames are assemblies of linear members that act primarily in axial tension or compression as ties or struts. The term truss denotes an assembly in one plane, and the term space frame describes a three-dimensional assembly in which the interconnections are such that a load at any point is distributed in all directions through the assembly. The joints need not be rigid and, ideally, should allow free relative rotations of the members. But they must be capable of transmitting tension as well as compression. The usual role in a building is of carrying a roof — in place of the arch, dome, vault, beam, or slab.
In the
early 19
century, the true timber truss, necessarily somewhat elaborated and
with the bottom tie made from shorter lengths of timber with lapped
joints, was stretched to span about 150 ft. (45m); but the first
wide-span iron roofs (of basically arched form) had then been built,
and future development was in iron and steel. With the introduction
of wrought iron for the ties, there was a clearer differentiation
between these and the struts that was carried over into steel
construction. Because there was no risk of the ties buckling, they
were made appreciably more slender.
The most
important space frames are lighter framed equivalents of domes and
vaults, or of slabs spanning in two or more directions
simultaneously. The framed dome is a very early form,
particularly if we include primitive dome-shaped huts. But even in
fully developed timber-framing systems, the ribs were invariably
aligned radially and circumferentially, and the system was then
braced by additional diagonals or by the outer covering. Early
iron-framed domes merely reproduced this timber form, and it was only
in the second half of the 19
century that an inherently stiff, triangulated pattern of
framing was substituted. This might be regarded as the first true
space frame.
Further
development of the framed dome or vault has taken place almost
entirely in the 20
century and has lagged somewhat behind parallel developments in
airframe structures, where there was a greater incentive to seek the
most efficient use of material to save weight.
Text С.
THE MILLENIUM DOME
Since the Greenwich meridian and thus the world time finds its origin in Greenwich, in Britain the idea has been conceived that it should be the place where the world should celebrate its step into the new millenium.
The centre of the Millenium celebrations is the Millenium Dome, the largest single public assembly building in the world. The architect of the Dome, Richard Rogers, is famous for such works as the Pompidou Centre, opened in 1977, and the Lloyd's of London building.
The Dome is an exceptional example of building engineering. The Dome itself provides an enclosure for the exhibition to protect the exhibits and the visitors from the weather.
The concept of the Dome's roof is apparently very simple. Tensioned steel cables are arranged radially on the surface of the dome and held in space by hangar and tie down cables at 25m intervals. The surface is defined as a spherical cap.
Between the cables, tensioned coated fabric is used as cladding. Both the tensioned cables and cladding carry the loads by deflection accompanied by increase in tension.
The forces in the cables, 40 tonnes in each radial line have to be resisted at the centre where they come together and at the boundary where they are anchored. In the centre of the roof there is a 30m diameter tension ring consisting of 12 — 48mm diameter cables which carry a total of 700 tonnes. At the edge the forces are resisted by vertical ground anchors going 12m down into the gravel layers and horizontally by a concrete ring beam 1000m in circumference which carries the loads in compression.
Text D. Read the text and tell about Le Corbusier's creative activity.
CHARLES EDOUARD (JEANNERET)
LE CORBUSIER
(1887-1966)
Le Corbusier was the dominant figure internationally in modern architecture from 1920 to 1960.
He proposed the "Modulor", a system of proportions grounded on the golden section or the Fibonacci series using the human figures as its basis, formulated the famous definition of architecture as 'the masterly correct and magnificent play of masses brought together in light'. His comparisons with engineering constructions and with modern forms of transportation were formulated into such oft-misunderstood postulates as 'the house is a machine for living in' and that it should be as practically constructed as a typewriter. By this he meant not a mechanistic 'machine aesthetic' but rather complete rationality in plan, capacity for serial-production and function.
His 'five points for a new architecture': the pilotis, roof terraces, free plan, continuous window strips and free facade composition were to be the essential elements of the new aesthetic.
Le Corbusier's works have become monuments of modern architecture with their general independence of terrain as well as a rich variety of interior and exterior spaces achieved by means of 'double-height rooms, gallery floors, bridges and ramps with views into the interior as well as 'framed' views looking out, all expressions of a genuine luxury in architecture.
Le Corbusier's long period as a leading figure in modern architecture — for nearly half a century — was unique among architects of his time and is, finally, a reflection of his capacity to endow architecture with an expression which evokes the spirit of his epoch. In this sense he was at once the 'terrible simplificateur' in the tradition of the rationalist enlightenment and a creator of forms which will endure well beyond his time.
Among his works are Villa Savoye, Poissy (1929—1931); Pavilion Su-isse, Cite Universitaire, Paris (1930-2); The Clarte apartment house in Geneva (1930—1932); Unite d'Habitation, Marseilles (1947—1952); the urban planning schemes for large North African and South American cities, (the 1930s); the Pilgrimage church of Notre Dame-du-Haut at Rou-champ (1950—1954); the Carpenter Center for the Visual Arts at Harvard University in Cambridge, Massachusetts (1961 — 1964); the plan of the city of Chandigarh, India (1950—1951), and others.
Unit 5
Text A. Read the text and tell about the phases of English Gothic.
GOTHIC CATHEDRALS
The
architecture of the central Middle Ages was termed Gothic during the
Renaissance because of its association with the barbarian north. Now
this term is used to describe the important international style in
most countries of Europe from the early 12
century to the advent of the Renaissance in the 15
century.
At the technical level Gothic architecture is characterized by the ribbed vault, the pointed arch, and the flying buttress.
One of the earliest buildings in which these techniques were introduced in a highly sophisticated architectural plan was the abbey of Saint-Denis, Paris.
The proportions are not large, but the skills and precision with which the vaulting is managed and the subjective effect of the undulating chain windows around the perimeter have given the abbey its traditional claim to the title "first Gothic building".
It should be said that in France and Germany this style is subdivided into the Early, High, and Late Gothic.
The French middle phase is called Rayonnant, the late — Flamboyant.
In English architecture the usual divisions are Early English, Decorative, and Perpendicular.
Early English Gothic developed from c. 1180 to c.1280. The most influential building in the new fashion was the choir of Canterbury cathedral (1175—1184), which has many of the features of Laon cathedral.
The
building retains a passage at clerestory level — an Anglo-Norman
feature that remained standard in English architecture well into the
13
century. Both in the shape of the piers and in the multiplicity of
attached colonettes, Canterbury resembles Laon. Colonettes became
extremely popular with English architects, particularly because
of the large supplies of purbeck marble, which gave any elevation a
special coloristic character. This is obvious at Salisbury cathedral
(begun 1220), but one of the richest examples of the effect is
in the nave of Lincoln cathedral (begun c. 1225).
English architects for a long time retained a liking for heavy surface decoration: thus, when Rayonnant tracery designs were imported, they were combined with the existing repertoire of colonettes, attached shafts, and vault ribs. The result which could be extraordinarily dense — for instance, in the east (or Angel) choir (begun 1256) at Lincoln cathedral and at Exeter cathedral (begun before 1280) — has been called the English Decorated style (1280-1350).
The architectural affects achieved (notably the retrochair of Wells cathedral or the choir of St. Augustine, Bristol) were more inventive generally than those of contemporary continental buildings.
English Gothic came to an end with the final flowering of the Perpendicular style (c. 1350—1550). It was characterized by vertical emphasis in structure and by elaborate fan vaults.
The first major surviving statement of Perpendicular style is probably the choir of Gloucester cathedral (begun soon after 1330). Other major monuments were St. Stephen's Chapel, Westminster (begun 1292 but now mostly destroyed) and York Minster nave (begun 1291), St. George's Chapel, Windsor, King's College Chapel, Cambridge (1444), the naves of Winchester (c. 1480), and Canterbury (c. 1400), the Chapel of Henry VII at Westminster Abbey.
Gothic was essentially the style of the Catholic countries of Europe. It was also carried to Cyprus, Malta, Syria, and Palestine by the Crusaders and their successors in the Mediterranean. The forms that were developed within the style on a regional basis were often of great beauty and complexity. They were used for all secular buildings, as well as for cathedrals, churches, and monasteries.
By the Gothic Survival is meant the survival of Gothic forms, particularly in provincial traditional building.
It
developed after the advent of the Renaissance and into the 17th
century. It should be differed from the Gothic Revival
(Neo-Gothic) in the 18
— the 19
centuries.
Vocabulary
advent — приход, прибытие
rib — pe6po
arch — арка
pointed arch — стрельчатая (остроконечная) арка
buttress — контрфорс
flying buttress — аркбутан, арочный контрфорс
sophisticated — изощренный
abbey — аббатство
skill — мастерство precision — точность
undulating — волнистый
claim — требование; претензия; притязание; утверждение; заявление
Rayonnant — лучистый (стиль)
Flamboyant — «пламенеющий» (стиль)
choir — место хора в соборе
to retain — удерживать; поддерживать; сохранять
clerestory — верхний ряд окон, освещающий центр высокого помещения
to attach — прикреплять; присоединять
tracery — ажурная каменная работа; рисунок, узор; переплетение
shaft — ствол
dense — густой, плотный
chapel — часовня
secular — светский, мирской