27. Borrowings, substratum, superstatum.

The oldest borrowings from Celtic lang. were borrowings of law, social and military terms:

• Goth lekeis – лікар, цілитель

• OE lead – свинець

• OIsl. leđr – шкіра

The oldest borrowings from Latin took place in the I century A.D. These were :

• Military terms:

L campus> OE camp, OHG champf – поле.

• Roads, buildings

L milia> OE mil, OHG mila – миля, тисяча кроків.

• Food and drinks

L vinum> Germ. *wina> Goth wein, OHG win (>G Wein), OE win (>E wine) – вино.

• Plants and animals

L piper> OHG pfeffar (G. Pfeffer), OE pipor (>E pepper) – перець.

• Clothes and shoes

L saccus> OHG sac (>G. sack), OE sacca (>E sack) – мішок.

• Trade (торгівля)

L moneta> OHG monizza (>G. Münze), OE mynet (>E mint) – монета.

• Household goods

L discus> OHG tisks (>G. Tisch), E dish – диск, плоске блюдо.

Slavic borrowings:

• Slav. * osenь> Germ. asani (час жнив)

• Slav. *vorgь> Germ *warga (ворог)

• Slav. pluь> Germ ploga (плуг)

The underlaid lang. is known as a substratum, the proposed explanation for sound change is therefore known as the substratum theory. Celtic lang. is a substratum for Engl. 449 year – Anglo-Saxons settled on the British Isles where the Celts were.

Superstratum – the superior influence in lang. It imposed on the other lang. (e. g. French). Bolgarian=Turkic+Slavic.

28. Simple and composite sentences.

Syntax of OGL isn’t fully explored. But it is considered that the structure of a simple sentence in OGL is the same as in the ModernGL. There were a couple of differences due to the morphological peculiarities of the Old L-ges.

Simple:

• The predicate was the obligatory feature of a sentence. The verb was absent only in a case when the same verb was used in the preceding sentence.

• The verb always took the 2^nd place. It took the 1^st place only if a sentence does not have a subject.

• Usually a sentence had both a subject and a predicate, but there were numerous cases of a sentence having only one or the other.

- sometimes the pronoun subject was eliminated;

- the subject wasn’t present if the predicate was presented as an impersonal verb, expressing natural phenomena or physical or emotional feeling (ringjan “to rain”, huggrjan “to be hungry”)

• The attribute and the object didn’t have a fixed position, could precede or follow the subject

• A simple sentence could be complicated by participle or infinitive constructions:

- absolute dative: Innagaggandin imam in Kafarnaum duatiddja imam hundafaps (до нього, що ввійшов у Капернаум, підійшов сотник)

- absolute accusative: Usgaggandan pan ina in daur, gasahw ina anpara (Його, що виходив з воріт, побачила інша)

- absolute nominative : Jah waurthans dags gatils, pan Herodis mela gabaurthais seinaizos nahtamat waurhta (І коли настав зручний день, тоді Ірод влаштував бенкет з нагоди свого дня народження)

Compound:

29. Comparative method.

Two languages are said to be genetically related if they are divergent continuations of the same earlier language. The common or hypothesised language that serves as a common ancestor is called a proto-language, or sometimes, a parent language. In this case the divergent continuations are frequently referred to as daughter languages. A parent language and its daughters constitute a language family.

Sometimes the proto-language is an actually attested language with surviving texts. A case in point is the family of Romance languages, including French, Spanish, Portuguese, Italian, Rumanian, and others, whose common ancestor appears to be a variant of Latin. Yet English and German can be traced back only so far, and then we run out of texts. In such situations the job of a linguist is to come up with a reconstruction of the parent language, a hypothesis about the specific form of the proto-language that could have changed into the documented daughter languages.

In the classical procedure and the first prerequisite of reconstruction is that one have languages with a large number of words similar in sound and meaning. Such words are referred to as cognates, and the first thing to do is to set up lists of cognate words. Let us take, for example, the following words:

OE	OHG	ON	Goth.	ModE
fæder	fater	faðir	fadar	father
þrīe	drî	þrír	þreis	three

First we look at the first sounds of each word in all the languages, and find out the first correspondence. Now we can determine the sound in the proto-language that could most easily resulted in the actually found sounds is *f-. Notice, that asterisk before the f implies reconstruction. This means that what follows is a reconstruction, and not an actually documented sound. A slightly more complex situation is presented by the words for ‘three’. Instead of unanimity, we find that Old High German has d, where other languages have þ, representing the sound found in Modern English bath. Other things being equal, in case like this, the linguist is inclined to let the majority rule. It is simpler to assume that one language made a change from þ to d than that three made a change from d to þ. Thus we reconstruct for Proto-Germanic the sound *þ.