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Galperin I. A. Stylistics

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PART I INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................................	6
I. GENERAL NOTES ON STYLE AND Stylistics ........................................................................	6
2. EXPRESSIVE MEANS (EM) AND STYLISTIC DEVICES (SD) .......................................	21
3. GENERAL NOTES ON FUNCTIONAL STYLES OF LANGUAGE ..................................	28
4. VARIETIES OF LANGUAGE...................................................................................................	30
5. A BRIEF OUTLINE OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE ENGLISH LITERARY
(STANDARD) LANGUAGE .........................................................................................................	36
6. MEANING FROM A STYLISTIC POINT OF VIEW ............................................................	51
PART II STYLISTIC CLASSIFICATION OF THE ENGLISH VOCABULARY............................	62
I. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS ...................................................................................................	62
2. NEUTRAL, COMMON LITERARY AND COMMON COLLOQUIAL VOCABULARY ....	63
3. SPECIAL LITERARY VOCABULARY .....................................................................................	67
a) Terms............................................................................................................................................	67
b) Poetic and Highly Literary Words..............................................................................................	70
c) Archaic, Obsolescent and Obsolete Words................................................................................	73
d) Barbarisms and Foreignisms.......................................................................................................	77
e) Literary Coinages (Including Nonce-Words) ............................................................................	82
4. SPECIAL COLLOQUIAL VOCABULARY...............................................................................	94
a) Slang .............................................................................................................................................	94
b) Jargonisms....................................................................................................................................	98
c) Professionalisms ........................................................................................................................	102
d) Dialectal words ..........................................................................................................................	104
e) Vulgar words or vulgarisms......................................................................................................	106
f) Colloquial coinages (words and meanings)..............................................................................	107
PART Ш PHONETIC EXPRESSIVE MEANS AND STYLISTIC DEVICES................................	110
GENERAL NOTES ...........................................................................................................................	110
Onomatopoeia ....................................................................................................................................	111
Alliteration..........................................................................................................................................	113
Rhyme.................................................................................................................................................	114
Rhythm ...............................................................................................................................................	116
PART IV LEXICAL EXPRESSIVE MEANS AND STYLISTIC DEVICES ..................................	121
A. INTENTIONAL MIXING OF THE STYLISTIC ASPECT OF WORDS ...............................	121
B. INTERACTION OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF LEXICAL MEANING ..................................	124
1. INTERACTION OF PRIMARY DICTIONARY AND CONTEXTUALLY IMPOSED
MEANINGS ...................................................................................................................................	124
Metaphor...................................................................................................................................	125
Metonymy .................................................................................................................................	129
Irony...........................................................................................................................................	131
3. INTERACTION OF LOGICAL AND EMOTIVE MEANINGS ........................................	137
Interjections and Exclamatory Words .................................................................................	138
The Epithet ...............................................................................................................................	141
Oxymoron .................................................................................................................................	146
4. INTERACTION OF LOGICAL AND NOMINAL MEANINGS Antonomasia................	148
Antonomasia.............................................................................................................................	148
C. INTENSIFICATION OF A CERTAIN FEATURE OF A THING OR PHENOMENON ......	150
Simile..............................................................................................................................................	150
Periphrasis ......................................................................................................................................	152
Euphemism.....................................................................................................................................	156
Hyperbole .......................................................................................................................................	158

D. PECULIAR USE OF SET EXPRESSIONS ...............................................................................	159
The Cliche ......................................................................................................................................	160
Proverbs and Sayings .....................................................................................................................	162
Epigrams.........................................................................................................................................	165
Allusions.........................................................................................................................................	168
Decomposition of Set Phrases.......................................................................................................	170
PART V SYNTACTICAL EXPRESSIVE MEANS AND STYLISTIC DEVICES ........................	172
A. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS ...............................................................................................	172
B. PROBLEMS CONCERNING THE COMPOSITION OF SPANS OF UTTERANCE LARGER
THAN THE SENTENCE .................................................................................................................	174
Supra-Phrasal Units .......................................................................................................................	175
The Paragraph ................................................................................................................................	178
C. COMPOSITIONAL PATTERNS OF SYNTACTICAL ARRANGEMENT...........................	182
Stylistic Inversion ..........................................................................................................................	183
Detached Construction...................................................................................................................	185
Parallel Construction......................................................................................................................	187
Chiasmus (Reversed Parallel Construction).................................................................................	188
Repetition........................................................................................................................................	190
Enumeration ...................................................................................................................................	194
Suspense .........................................................................................................................................	196
Climax (Gradation) ........................................................................................................................	197
Antithesis........................................................................................................................................	199
D. PARTICULAR WAYS OF COMBINING PARTS OF THE UTTERANCE (LINKAGE) ...	202
Polysyndeton ..................................................................................................................................	204
The GapSentence Link................................................................................................................	205
E. PARTICULAR USE OF COLLOQUIAL CONSTRUCTIONS ..............................................	207
Ellipsis ............................................................................................................................................	208
Break-in-the-Narrative (Appsiopesis)...........................................................................................	210
Question-in-the-Narrative..............................................................................................................	211
Represented Speech .......................................................................................................................	213
a) Uttered Represented Speech............................................................................................	214
b) Unuttered or Inner Represented Speech.........................................................................	217
F. STYLISTIC USE OF STRUCTURAL MEANING ...................................................................	220
Rhetorical Questions......................................................................................................................	220
Litotes .............................................................................................................................................	222
PART VI FUNCTIONAL STYLES OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE...........................................	224
INTRODUCTORY REMARKS .......................................................................................................	224
A. THE BELLES-LETTRES STYLE ..............................................................................................	225
1. LANGUAGE OF POETRY.....................................................................................................	227
a) Compositional Patterns of Rhythmical Arrangement...................................................	227
Metre and Line.......................................................................................................................	227
The Stanza ..............................................................................................................................	231
Free Verse and Accented Verse............................................................................................	234
b) Lexical and Syntactical Features of Verse ......................................................................	237
2. EMOTIVE PROSE ....................................................................................................................	243
3. LANGUAGE OF THE DRAMA ...........................................................................................	253
B. PUBLICISTS STYLE...................................................................................................................	258
1. ORATORY AND SPEECHES ............................................................................................	259
2. THE ESSAY ..............................................................................................................................	264

	3. JOURNALISTIC ARTICLES	................................................................................................	265
	C. NEWSPAPER STYLE .................................................................................................................		266
	1. BRIEF NEWS ITEMS ............................................................................................................		268
	2. ADVERTISEMENTS AND ANNOUNCEMENTS ...............................................................		271
	3. THE HEADLINE.......................................................................................................................		273
	4. THE EDITORIAL .....................................................................................................................		275
	D. SCIENTIFIC PROSE STYLE ...................................................................................................		277
	E. THE STYLE OF OFFICIAL DOCUMENTS .............................................................................		282
FINAL REMARKS................................................................................................................................			287
. Introduction
1.	General Notes on Style and Stylistics ............. . 7		9
2.	Expressive Means (EM) and Stylistic ..........Devices (SD)		25
3.	General Notes on Functional Styles ......of Language		'. . . . 32
4.	Varieties of Language ” t ...................	35
5.	A Brief Outline of the Development of the English Literary (Standard)

Language t * t ^ t .........................					41
6. Meaning from a Stylistic Point of View ..............							57
Part II. Stylistic Classification of the English Vocabulary
1. General Considerations > t ....................					70
2. Neutral, Common Literary and Common Colloquial Vocabulary ... 72
3. Special Literary Vocabulary t ..................						76
a) Terms ..	t .t .....	: \ .-r ...............			76
b) Poetic and Highly Literary Words ..............							79
c) Archaic, Obsolescent and Obsolete Words						............	83
d) Barbarisms and Foreignisms ..................					87
e) Literary Coinages (Including Nonce-Words) ...........								92
4. Special	Colloquial		Vocabulary ..................				104
a) Slang t	,	t ........................			104
b) Jargonisms ,		* ,	........................ 109
c) Professionalisms ,			t ,	t ....................	113
d) Dialectal Words it t -.				.^ ...................	116
e) Vulgar Words or Vulgarisms					............ .\. ....		118
f) Colloquial Coinages (Words and Meanings)							............	119
Part III. Phonetic Expressive Means and Stylistic Devices
General Notes ............................					123
Onomatopoeia ...		t ........................			124
Alliteration . e **.........................					126
Rhyme ; ......	%.	.......................			128
Rhythm , , . ” ..........................					129
Part IV. Lexical Expressive Means and Stylistic Devices
A. Intentional Mixing of the Stylistic Aspect of. Words								... ...... 136
В. Interaction of Different Types of Lexical Meaning ............								138

1. Interaction of Primary Dictionary and Contextually Imposed Meanings 139

Metaphor .............................			139
Metonymy t ........		^ ...............	\ ...	144
Irony , 5 ............................			146
2. Interaction of Primary and Derivative Logical Meanings ......							148
Stylistic Devices Based on Polys emantics Effect, Zeugma and Pun ....								148
3. Interaction of Logical and Emotive Meanings					............	153
Interjections and Exclamatory Words ...............					154
The Epithet ,,,*.......................			157
Oxymoron >“. “		“ .......................		162
4. Interaction of Logical and Nominal Meanings ...........						164
Antonomasia ...........................			164
C. Intensification of a Certain Feature of a Thing or Phenomenon ......								166
' Simile ...............................			167
/, •	^Periphrasis .I.....	'..............	'...-.....	169
!""'	Euphemism .............................			173
Hyperbole ..............................			176
D. Peculiar Use of Set Expressions				....................	177
The Cliche ..............................			177
Proverbs and Sayings .. :< .......................				181
Epigrams ..............................			184
Quotations .............................			186
Allusions ..............................			187
.Decomposition of Set Phrases ....................				189“
5 Part V. Syntactical Expressive Means and Stylistic Devices
General Considerations ..........................				'191

ВГ Problems Concerning the Composition of Spans of Utterance Larger than the


Sentence ..............................				193
Supra-Phrasal Units			.........................	194
The Paragraph ...........................				198
C. Compositional Patterns of Syntactical Arrangement ..........						202
	Stylistic Inversion ..........................			203
•j Detached		Construction .......................		205
/Parallel Construction ........................				208
[Chiasmus (Reversed Parallel Construction) ..............					209
Repetition .............................				211
Enumeration . . . ......................... 216
Suspense. . .......		.	..................... 218
Climax (Gradation)			... \ ......................	219
Antithesis ..............................				222
D. Particular Ways of Combining Parts of the Utterance (Linkage) . . . . ; 225
,	Asyndeton .............................			226


Polysyndeton . > .-,-.........................				226
The Gap-Sentence -Link . .			^.	....................	227
E. Particular Use of Colloquial Constructions ..............						230
Ellipsis". ..............................				231
Break-in-the-Narrative(Aposiopesis) ..................						233
Question-in-the-Narrative . . . ................... 235
Represented Speech .........................				236
a) Uttered Represented Speech ...................					238
b) Unuttered or Inner Represented Speech .............						241
F. Stylistic Use of Structural Meaning .................						244
Rhetorical Questions V *			*	. . ................... 244
Litotes ...............................
Part VI. Functional Styles of the English Language
Introductory Remarks .........................				249
A. The belles -lettres Style .......................				250
1. Language of Poetry ........................				252
a) Compositional Patterns of Rhythmical Arrangement ........							252
Meter and Line ., ,• .....................				252
The Stanza ......		§. ....................		258
Free Verse and Accented Verse '. ................ 261
b) Lexical and Syntactical Features of Verse ............						264
2. Emotive Prose ..........................				270
3. Language of		the Drama		....................	281
В	Publicists Style ...........................			287
1	Oratory and Speeches ^		......................	288
2. The Essay ............................				293
3. Journalistic Articles ........................				295
С	Newspaper Style (written by V. L. Nayer) ..............					295
1. Brief News Items ........................				298
2. Advertisements and Announcements ................						301
3.' The Headline ...........................				302
4	The Editorial ...........................			305
D Scientific Prose Style .........................				307
E. The Style of Official Documents ...................						312
Final Remarks		............*.................		319

PART I INTRODUCTION

I. GENERAL NOTES ON STYLE AND Stylistics

Stylistics, sometimes called lingvo-stylistics, is a branch of general linguistics. It has now been more or less definitely outlined. It deals mainly with two interdependent tasks: a) the investigation of the inventory of special language media which by th eir ontological features secure the desirable effect of the utterance and b) cer tain types of texts (discourse) which due to the choice and arrangement of language means are distinguished by the pragmatic aspect of the communication. The two objectives of stylistics are clearly discernible as two separate fields of investigation. The inventory of special language media can be analyzed and their ontological features revealed if presented in a system in which the co-relation between the media becomes evident.

The types of texts can be analyzed if their linguistic components are presented in their interaction, thus revealing the unbreakable unity and transparency of constructions of a given type. The types of texts that are distinguished by the pragmatic aspect of the communication are called functional styles of language (FS); the special media of language which secure the desirable effect of the utte rance are called stylistic devices (SD) and expressive means (EM). ' . .

The first field of investigation, i.e. SDs and EMs, necessarily touches upon such general language problems as the aesthetic function of language, synonymous ways of rendering one and the same idea, emotional colouring in language, the interrelation between language and thought, the individual manner of an author in making use of language and a number of other issues.

The second field, i.e. functional styles, cannot avoid discussion of such most general linguistic issues as oral and written varieties of language, the notion of the literary (standard) language, the constituents of texts larger than the sentence, the generative aspect of literary texts, and some others.

In dealing with the objectives of stylistics, certain pronouncements of adjacent disciplines such as theory of information, literature, psychology, logic and to some extent statistics must be touched upon. This is indispensable; for nowadays no science is entirely isolated from other domains of human knowledge; and linguistics, particularly its branch stylistics, cannot avoid references to the above mentioned disciplines because it is confronted with certain overlapping issues.

The branching off of stylistics in language science was indirectly the result of a long-established tendency of grammarians to confine their investigations to sentences, clauses and word-combinations which are "well-formed", to use a dubious term, neglecting anything that did not fall under the recognized and received standards. This tendency became particularly strong in what is called descriptive linguis tics. The generative grammars, which appeared as a reaction against descriptive linguistics, have confirmed that the task of any grammar is to limit the scope of investigation of

language data to sentences which are considered well-formed. Everything that fails to meet this requirement should be excluded from linguistics.

But language studies cannot avoid subjecting to observation any language data whatever, so where grammar refuses to tread stylistics steps in. Stylistics has acquired its own status with its own inventory of tools (SDs and EMs), with its own object of investigation and with its own methods of research.

The stylistics of a highly developed language like English or Rus sian has brought into the science of language a separate body of media, thus widening the range of observation of phenomena in language. The significance of this branch of linguistics can hardly be over-estimated. A number of events in the development of stylistics must be mentioned here as landmarks. The first is the discussion of the problem of style and stylistics in "Вопросы языкознания" in 1954, in which many important general and particular problems were broadly analyzed and some obscure aspects elucidated. Secondly, a conference on Style in Language was held at Indiana Un iversity in the spring of 1958, followed by the publication of the proceedings of this conference

(1960) under the editorship of Thomas Sebeok. Like the discussion in "Вопросы языкознания" this conference revealed the existence of quite divergent points o f view held by different students of-language and literature. Thirdly, a conference on style and stylistics was held in the Moscow State Pedagogical Institute of Foreign Languages" in March 1969. At this conference lines were drawn along which studies in lingvo-stylistics might be maintained. An interesting symposium was also held in Italy, the proceedings of which were published under the editorship of professor S. Chat man in 1971.

A great number of monographs, textbooks, articles, and dissertation papers are now at the disposal of a scholar in stylistics. The stream of information grows larger every month. Two American journals appear regularly, which may keep the student informed as to trends in the theory of stylistics. They are Style issued at the Arkansas University (U.S.A.) and Language and Style published in Southern Illinois Uni versity (U.S.A.) (See also the bibliography on p. 324).

It is in view of the ever-growing significance of the exploration of language potentialities that so much attention is paid in lingvo-stylistics to the analysis of expressive means (EMs) and stylistic devices (SDs), to their nature and functions, to their classification and to possible interpretations of additional meanings they may carry in a message as well as their aesthetic value.

In order to ascertain the borders of stylistics it is necessary to go at some length into the question of what is style.

The word s t у I e is derived from the Latin word 'stylus' which meant a short stick sharp at one end and flat at the other used by the Romans for writing on wax tablets.

Now the word 'style1 is used in so many senses that it has become a breeding ground for ambiguity. The word is applied to the teaching of how to write a composition (see below); it is also used to reveal the correspondence between thought and expression; it frequently denotes an individual manner of making use of language;

it sometimes refers to more general, abstract notions thus inevi tably becoming vague and obscure, as, for example, "Style is the man himself" (Buffon), "Style is depth" (Derbyshire);* "Style is deviations" (Enkvist); "Style is choice", and the like.

All these ideas directly or indirectly bear on issues in stylistics. Some of them become very useful by revealing the springs which make our utterances emphatic, effective and goal-directed. It will therefore not come amiss to quote certain interesting observations regarding style made by different writers from different angles. Some of these ob - servations are dressed up as epigrams or sententious maxims like the ones quoted above. Here are some more of them.

"Style is a quality of language which communicates precisely emotions or thoughts, or a system of emotions or thoughts, peculiar to the author." (J. Middleton Murry)

"... a true idiosyncrasy of style is the result of an author's success in compelling language to conform to his mode of experience." (J. Middleton Murry)

"Style is a contextually .restricted linguistic variation." (Enkvist) "Style is a selection of non-distinctive features of language." (L. Bloom-field)

"Style is simply synonymous with form or expression and hence a superfluous term." (Benedetto Croce)

"Style is essentially a citation process, a body of formulae, a memory (almost in the cybernetic sense of the word ), a cultural and not an expressive inheritance." (Roland

Barthes) •" - . *~

Some/ linguists consider that the word 'style' and the subject of linguistic stylistics is confined to the study of the effects of the message, i.e. its impact on the read er. Thus Michael Riffaterre writes that "Stylistics will be a linguistics of the effects of the message, of the output of the act of communication, of its attention-compelling function".1 This point of view has clearly been reached under the influence of recent developments in the general theory of information. Language, being one of the means of communication or, to be exact, the most important means of communication, is regarded in the above quotation from a pragmatic point of view. Stylistics in that c ase is regarded as a language science which deals with the results of the act of communication To a very considerable degree this is true. Stylistics must take into consideration the "output of the act of communication". But stylistics must also investigate the

ontological, i.e. natural,	inherent,	and func tional	peculiarities of the means	of
communication which may ensure the effect sought.
Archibald A. Hill states	that "A	current definition	of style and sty listics is	that

structures, sequences, and patterns which extend, or may extend, beyond the boundaries of individual sentences define style, and that the study of them is stylistics."1

The truth of this approach to style and stylistics lies in the fact that the author concentrates on suchphenomena in language as present a system, in other words, on facts which are not confined to individual use.

The most frequent definition of style is one expressed by Seymour Chatman: "Style is a product of individual choices and patterns of choices (emphasis added) a mong

linguistic possibilities."2

This definition indirectly deals with the idiosyncrasies peculiar to a given writer. Somehow it fails to embrace such phenomena in text structure where the 'individual' is reduced to the minimum or even done away with entirely (giving preference to non-individualistic forms in using language means). However, this definition is acceptable when applied to the ways men-of-letters use language when they seek to make it conform to their immediate aims and purport. A somewhat bro ader view of style is expressed by Werner Winter who maintains that "A style may be said to be characterized by a pattern of recurrent selections from the inventory of optional features of a language. Various types of selection can be found: complete exclusion of an optional element, obligatory inclusion of a feature optional elsewhere, varying degrees of inclusion of a specific variant without complete elimination of competing features."3

The idea of taking various types of selection as criteria for distinguishing styles seems to be a sound one. It places the whole problem on a solid foundation of objective-criteria, namely, the interdependence of optional and obligatory features.

There is no point in quoting other definitions of style. They are too many and too heterogeneous to fall under one more or less satisfactory unified notion. Undoubtedly all these diversities in the understanding of the word 'style' stem from its ambiguity. But still all these various definitions leave impression that by and large they all have something in common. All of them4 point to some integral significance, namely, that style is a set of characteristics by which we distinguish one author from another or members of one subclass from members of other subclasses, all of which are members-of the same general class.4 What are these sets of characteristics typical of a writer or of a subclass of the literary language will be seen in the analysis of the language means of a craven writer and of the subclasses of the general literary standard. Another point the above quotations have in common is that all of them concentrate on the form of the expression almost to the detriment of the content. In other words, style is regarded as something that be longs exclusively to the plane of expression and not to the plane 'of content. l This opinion predominantly deals with the correspondence between the intention of the writer whoever he may be—a man of letters, the writer of a diplomatic document, an artic le in a newspaper, or a scientific treatise—and the effect achieved. The evaluation is also based on whether the choice of language means conforms with the most general pattern of the given type of text—a novel, a poem, a letter, a document, an article, an essay and so on.

It follows then that the term 'style', being ambiguous, needs a restricting adjective to denote what particular aspect of style we intend to deal with. It is suggested here that the term individual style should be applied to that sphere of linguistic and literary science which deals with the peculiarities of a writer's individual manner of using lan - guage means to achieve the effect he desires. Deliberate choice must be distinguished from a habitual idiosyncrasy in the use of language units'/every individual has his own manner and habits of using them. The speech of an individual which is characterized by

peculiarities typical of that particular individual is called an I d i о I e с t. The idiolect should be distinguished from what we call, individual style, inasmuch as the word 'style' presupposes a deliberate choice.

When Buffon coined his famous saying which, due to its epigrammatical form, became a by-word all over the world, he had in mind the idiolect, i.e. those qualities of speech which are inherent and which reveal a man's breeding, education, social standing, etc. All these factors are, however, undoubtedly interwoven with individual style. A man's breeding and education will always affect his turn of mind and therefore will nat urally be revealed in his speech and writing. But a writer with a genuine individual style will as much as possible avoid those language peculiarities which point to his breeding and education in order to leave room for that deliberate choice of language means which will secure the effect sought.

It follows then that the individual style of a writer is marked by its uniqueness. It can be recognized by the specific and peculiar combina tion of language media and stylistic devices which in their interaction present a certain system. This system derives its origin from the creative spirit, and elusive though it may seem, it can nevertheless be ascertained. Naturally, the individual style of a writer will never be entirely independent of the literary norms and canons of the given period. When we read novels by Swift or Fielding we can easily detect features common to both writers. These features are conditioned by the general

1 In linguistics there are two terms now generally recognized and widely used — Plan of expression and plan of content literary canons of the period and cannot therefore be neglected. But the adaptations of these canons will always be peculiar and therefore distinguishable. Alexander Blok said that the style of a writer is so closely connec ted with the content of his soul, that the experienced eye can see the soul through his style, and by studying the form penetrate to the depth of the content.1 The idea of this subtle remark can be interpreted in the following way: —the style of a writer can be ascertained only by analysis of the form, i.e. language media. To analyze the form in order to discover the idiosyncrasies of a writer's style is not an easy, but a rewarding task. Approaches to components of individuality such as 1) composition of larger-than-the sentence units (see p. 193), 2) rhythm and melody of utterances, 3) system of imagery, 4) preferences for definite stylistic devices and their co-relation with neutral language media, 5) interdependence of the language media employed by the author and the media characteristic of the personages, are indispensable.

The language of a writer is sometimes regarded as alien to lingvo -stylistics. Here is what V. M. Zirmunsky writes: "The language of a writer can hardly be considered an object of lingvo-stylistics. If analyzed outside the problem of style (the style of the work, the writer, the literary trend or the literary era), the language falls into a mass of words, collocations and grammatical facts, which taken in isolation will serve as but unreliable evidence as to the life of the given language in the given period of its development." 2

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