Galperin I. A. Stylistics

Therefore the written utterance will inevitably be more diffuse, more explanatory. In other words, it has to produce an enlarged representation of the communication in order to be explicit enough.

The forms of the written language replace those of the spoken language when dissemination of ideas is the purpose in view. It is the written variety of la nguage with its careful organization and deliberate, choice of words and mistruHior^ and educa - tional influence on a wMe and scattered public.

Jn fRe r6rig"process^TTI^uncfioning, the written language has ac quired its own characteristic features emanating from the need to am-P"ty the utterance, which, is an essential point in the written language.

The gap between the spoken and written varieties of language, wider narrower at different periods in the development of the literary lan -

guage, will always remain apparent due to the difference in circumstances in which the two are used. Here is an example showing the difference. "Marvellous beast, a-fox. Great places for wild life, these wooded chines; so steep you can't disturb them—pigeons, jays, woodpeckers, rabbits, foxes, hares, pheasants—every mortal thing."

Its written counterpart would run as follows: 'What a marvellous beast a fox is! These wooded chines are splendid places for wild life. They are so steep that one can't disturb anything. Therefore one can see every imaginable creature here—pigeons, jays, woodpeckers, rabbits, foxes, hares and pheasants/

The use of the peculiarities of the spoken variety in the written language, or vice versa, the peculiarities of the written language in lively speech, will always produce a ludicrous effect. In this connection A. S. Pushkin wrote:

"The written language is constantly being enlivened by expressions born in conversation but must not give up what it has acquired in the course of centuries. To use the spoken language only, means not to know the language."1

It must be borne in mind that in the belles-lettres style there may appear elements of colloquial language (a form of the spoken variety), but it will always be stylized to a greater or lesser degree by the writer. The term Mb>eljs^fitti£&LitsdI suggests the use of the written language. The spoTcen language by its very nature is spontaneous, momentary, fleeting. It vanishes after having fulfilled its purpose, which is .to communicate a thought, no matter whether it is trivial or really important. The idea remains, the language dissolves in it. The written language, on the contrary, lives together with the idea it expresses.

A trustworthy observation on the difference between the spoken and written varieties of language is made by Prof. Archibald A. Hill in his "An Analysis of 'The Windhover'." "Ordinary speech is~ ephemeral, meant to be reacted to and forgotten. ...chains in speech, therefore, work mostly forward and over a fairly short span. In literature they can also work backward and there can be more than one chain running at a time, so that a given item can have one meaning in one span, a different one in a second."2

The spoken language cannot be detached from the user of it, the speaker, who is unable

to view it from the outside. The written language, on the contrary, can be detached from the writer, enabling him to look upon his utterance objectively and giving him the opportunity to correct and improve..wjjat has been put on paper. That is why it is said that the writ|en language bears a greater volume of responsibility than its spoken c6unteifpart;

The spoken variety ^iffcj^from the written language (that is, in its written representation) ghoneticallv, morphologically, lexically, .and syntactically. Thus, of morj)liQlogIHriSFmsTHes"poKen language common-" " "

ivuses contractedjprms, eas 'he'd' (he would), 'she's' (she is) Td've' (I would have). It niusT¥e"remembered that we touch upon the differences between the two varieties of the English language within standard (literary) English. However, some forms of the vernacular do make their wav into the oral (spoken) variety of standard English. They are, as it were, on the way to be admitted into the standard. Such are, for example, the use of don't instead of doesn't, as in "It's a wonder his father don't take him in his bank" (Dreiser); he instead of him, as in "I used to play tennis with he and Mrs. Antolini" (Salinger); / says, ain't (instead of am not, is not, are not), them instead oLthese or those, as in'Тйе/n's some of your chaps, ain't they?" (Tressell); Leggo=4et go', hellova=lhel\ of a' and others.

These morphological and phonetic peculiarities are sometimes retarded as violations of grammar rules, caused by a certain carelessness which accompanies №e quickTempd of colloquial speech" or an excited state of mind. Others are typical of territorial or social dialects. THe following passage is illustrative in this respect:

"Mum, I've asked a young lady to come to tea tomorrow. Is that all right?" "You done what?" asked Mrs. Sunbury, for a moment forgetting her grammar. "You heard, mum." (Maugham)

Some of these improprieties are now recognized as being legitimate forms of colloquial English. Thus, Prof. H. Whitehall of Indiana University now admits that "Colloquial spoken English often uses them as the plural form of this and that, written English uses these and those. 'Them men have arrived'."1

The most striking difference between the spoken and written language is, however, in the VQcabulary used. There are words and phrases typi-caljy colloquial, on the one hand, and typically bookish-, on the other. This problem will be dealt with in detail in the next chapter. Such words and phrases as 'sloppy', 'to be gone on somebody' (= to be violently irUove with); 'Itake it' j[^.X.Ufl^erstand); 4a sort of; “to hob-nob with' (= to be very familiar with) and offiersTmmediately mark the utterance as being colloquial, that is, belonging to the spoken variety of language. They are rarely found in the author's narrative unless special stylistic aims are pursued. When set against ordinary neutral words or literary-bookish words and expressions, they produce a marked stylistic effect. Here is an example:

||He says you were struck off the rolls for something." . 'Removed from the Register' is the correct expression," placidly interrupted the doctor. (Maugham)

Here are some more examples of present-day colloquial phrases which are gaining

ground in standard English but which are strongly felt to °e colloquial: 'How come?' (= Why? How does that happen?), 'What

time do you make it?', 'so much the better', 'to be up to something', 4to buddy-buddy together' (= to be friends).

The spoken language makes ample use of intensifying words. These are interjections and words with strong emotive meaning, as oaths, swear-\^"ds^Tld'"a~dfecTives which have lost their primary meaning and only serve the purpose of intensifying the emotional charge of the utterance. Here are some examples:

"I'd sure like to hear some more about them people." (Don Gordon) "In fact, you ought to be darn glad you went to Burtingame." (L. Ford) "He put my goddam paper down..." (Salinger)

The words 'here* and * there' are also used to reinforce the demonstrative pronouns, as in:

"If I can get a talk with this, here servant..." said Weller. "That there food is good."

"Is this 'ere (here) hall (all) you've done?" he shouts out.

There is another characteristic feature of colloquial language, namely, the insertion into the utterance of words without any meaning, which are appropriately called "fill-ups" or empty words. To some extent they give a touch of completeness to the sentence if used at the end of it or, if used in the middle, help the speaker to fill the gap when unable to find the proper word. Illustrative is the use of 'and all' in Holden's speech in Salinger's novel "The Catcher in the Rye." Here are some examples:

"She looked so damn nice, the way she kept going around and around in her blue coat and all."

"... splendid and clear-thinking and all" "... he is my brother and all"

Such words and set expressions as well, so to say, you see, you know, you understand, and all, as well as what may be called "mumbling words" like -m-m, er-r, alsfr belong to the category of fill-ups.

The syntactical^ pQculmritieg, of the spoken language are perhaps not so stfikfn^'a^ tlie lexical ones, but more than any other features they reveal the true nature of the spoken variety of language, that is, the sit-uational character of the communication.

The first of them is what is erroneously called ellipsis, that is, the omission of parts of the utterance easily supplied Fy~tfiF Situation in which the communication takes place. These are in fact not omissions, but the regular absence of parts unnecessary in lively conversation when there are two or more people speaking. Here are some absolutely normal and legitimate constructions which have missing elements in the spoken language, elements which are, however, indispensable in the written language:

' Vlell you what."

f'Who you with? (Who are you with?)" "Care to hear my ideas about it?" "Ever go back to England?" "Just doing a short story to kill the time.'

д second feature is the tendency to use the direct wprd:or4er щ ques -or omit the

auxiliary verb, leaving it to {he intonation to indicate meaning of the sentence, for example:

"Scrooge knew Marley was dead?" (Dickens) "Miss Holland look after you and all that?"

Unfinished sentences are also typical of the spoken language, for example, 'If you behave like that I'll...'

There is a syntactical structure with a tautological subject which is also considered characteristic of colloquial English. It is a construc tion in which two subjects are used where one is sufficient reference. Usually they are noun and pronoun, as in: x

“He was a kind boy, Harry.' 'Helen, she was “there. Ask her.'

In the spoken language it is very natural to have a string of sentences without any connections or linked with, and, that servant of all work, for example:

'Came home late. Had supper and went to bed. Couldn't sleep, of course. The evening had been too much of a strain.'

It has already been pointed out that the ,spo]<:en^yari§ty of language^ is jar more emotional than its cou^tepart, due mainly to ffie advan-". tage the human voice supplies. This emotiveness of colloquial language has produced a number of syntactical structures which so far have been little investigated and the meaning of which can hardly be discerned without a proper intonation design. Here are some of them:

"Isn't she cute!"

"Don't you tell me that." "A witch she is!"

"And didn't she come over on the same boat as myself 1" "He fair beats me, does James!"

"Clever girl that she is!" "You are telling me!" "There you have the man!"

"Somebody is going to touch you with a broomstick!"

The characteristic syntactical features of the written variety of language can easily be perceived by the student of language. As .the situation must be made clear by the context, the utterance becomes more exact. That means the relations between the parts of the utter-a^e roust be precise. Hence the abundance of all kinds of conjunctions, verbial phrases and other means which may serve as connectives. s someone has said, a clear writer is always conscious of a reader over in *t ЧегHe must explain. Most of the connecting words were evolved

conn ^ritten language and for the most part are used only there. Such on theves as moreover, furthermore, likewise, similarly, nevertheless, contrary, however, presen tly, eventually, therefore, in connection with, hereinafter, henceforth, have a decidedly bookish flavour and are seldom used in ordinary conversation.

Another syntactical feature of the written language is its use of complicated sentence-units. The written language prefers hypotaxis to paFataxis; Tong~"periods'" are more frequent than short utterances. The monologue character of the written'

language forcibly demands logical coherence of the ideas expressed and the breaking of the utterance into observable spans; hence units like the supra-phrasal unit and the paragraph (see pp. 193—198).

The words and word-combinations of the written language have also gained recognition as a separate layer of the English vocabulary. Richard D. Altick, Prof, of English at the Ohio State University, calls many phrases that tend to be bookish "space-wasters". These are despite the fact (== although); in the matter of (= about); a long period of time (= a long time); in the capacity of (= as); resembling In nature (= like); reach a decision (— decide); met with the approval of Jones (= Jones approved); announced himself to be In favour of (= said he favoured) and others. However, these "space-wasters" cannot always be so easily dispensed with, and Prof. Altick seems not to take into consideration the subtle difference in /meaning carried by such pairs as in the capacity of and as, resembling In nature and like. Of course, there are the "high-talkers" who frequently over-indulge in bookishness of expression, thus causing a natural protest on the part of ordinary readers. J. D. Adams, an American linguist and critic, gives an example of such over-bookish-ness from an Academy of Science report: "The evolution of an optimum scientific payload will require a continuing dialogue among all potential investigators and the engineers responsible for implementing their scientific goals." Then he gives what he calls a "possible translation": "Finding -the right cargo will require 'continuing conferences of"those working on the project."1

It is worthy of note that most of the ridicule poured on the bookish language used by different writers is concentrated on the vocabulary. Little or no mockery is made of the syntactical pattern, even though m the long run it is this feature that has as great a weight as any of the others in distinguishing the written from the spoken language. The syntactical structure, na matter how complicated it may be, reflects the essential difference between the two varieties of language, and is accepted without question. Any-syntactical pattern of the written variety will always show the interrelation between the parts of the utterance, so there is nothing to hinder the reader in grasping the whole. This is the case with prose writing.

With regard to poetry, the situation is somewhat different. Recent observations on the peculiarities of the language of modern English and American poetry have proved that it is mainly the breach of syntactical laws that hinders understanding to a degree that the message

comes undecodable. Coherence and logical unity backed up by purely linguistic means is therefore an essential property of the written variety. The bookish vocabulary, one of the notable properties of the writ-teTHanguai^ even the most intelligent reader and may very frequently need interpretation.

5. A BRIEF OUTLINE OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE ENGLISH LITERARY (STANDARD) LANGUAGE

Up till now we have done little more than mention the literary (standard) language, which is one of the most important notions in stylistics and general linguistics. It is now necessary to elucidate this linguistic notion by going a little deeper into what constitutes the concept and to trace the stages in the development of the English standard language. This is necessary in order to avoid occasional confusion of terms differently used in works on the history, literature and style of the English language.

Confusion between the terms "literary language" and "language of literature" is frequently to be met.

JLiterary language is a historical category. It exists as a varietyof iie* nationalanguage. 1," said A. M. Gorki, "that language is the creation of the people. The division of the language into literary and vernacular only means that there are, as it were, a rough unpolished tongue and one wrought by men-of-letters."1^

The IHeraryJanguage is that elaborated form (variety) of the national language which obeys definite morphological, phonetic, syntactical, lexical; phraseological and stylistic norms2 recognized as standard and thereforeji£££plable in all kinds and types of discourse. It allows nTo3T!TcafTons but within the frame work ш the system of established norms. It casts out some of the forms of language which are considered to be beyond the established norm. The norm of usage is established. Бу thelanguage community at every given period in the development 2? the language. It is ever changing and therefore not infrequently evasive. At every period the norm is in a state of fluctuation and it requires a very sensitive and efficient eye and ear to detect and specify these fluctuations. Sometimes we may even say thatJwjo normsco -exist. But in this case we may be positive that one of the co-existingTofriTs"of the language will give way to its rival and either vanish fro m the language entirely or else remain on its outskirts.

In this connection it will not come amiss to note that there are two ?~^£U5gJendencies in the process of establishing the norm:

preservation of the already existing norm, sometimes with attempts ,^-trrrrt, Qjd forms of the'language

2) mtroduction of new norms

In this connectionIt"wiTFTe mteresting to quote the following lines from H. C. Wyld's "A History of Modern Colloquial English." \

"If it were necessary to attempt to formulate the general ten- J dencies which have been discernible in Received Standard Eng- j lish during the last three centuries and a half, and which have been increasingly potent during the last hundred and fifty years, we should name two, which are to some extent opposed, but both of which are attributable to social causes. The first is the gradual decay of ceremoniousness and formality which has overtaken the speech and modes of address, no less than the manners, of good society. The second of the effort—sometimes conscious and deliberate, sometimes unconscious—after 'correctness' or correctitude, which, on the one hand, has almost

eliminated the use of oaths and has softened away many coarsenesses and crudities of expression—as we should now feel them to be, however little squeamish we may be—while on the other it has, by a rigid appeal to the spelling—the very worst and most unreliable court for the purpose—definitely ruled out, as 'incorrect' or 'slipshod' or 'vulgar'", many pronunciations and grammatical constructions which had arisen in the natural course of the developmeftt of English, and were formerly universal among the best speakers. Both of these tendencies are due primarily ] to the social, political and economic events in our history.... !

These social changes have inevitably brought with therrf cOr- I responding changes in manners and in speech... but the speech j and habits of a lifetime are not changed in a moment, as a ! vesture. Much of the old remains, and slowly and imperceptib ly the new-comers react upon their environment, almost as much as they are influenced by it. Thus, for instance, it is suggested thai the Middle Class Puritan ideals have gradually brought about a greater reticence of expression and a more temperate use of expletives, and also a greater s implicity of manners, from which \ many of the airs and graces of the older order were eliminated. ! Again, a highly cultivated and intellectual section of the Middle Class have played a prominent part in Church and State since the time of Elizabeth. We see under that monarch a generation of courtiers, statesmen, and prelates, who were also scholars, and even some who... were educational reformers and writers upon language, as well as^statesmen. The influence of these learn ed courtiers would be in the direction of correctness and elegance of utterance, in opposition to the more careless and unstudied speech of the mere men of fashion."1

It is interesting to note that much of what was considered a violation of the norm in one period of the development of a language becomes acknowledged and is regarded as perfectly normal in another

iod Many words and constructions which were once considered illit -Perte have become lilerarya T^ncTno effort was spared to ban inriova-f[lns, paFticularly"in"the sphere of vocabulary, by the purists of,any given' period. But most of their efforts were in vain. The people, who are the only lawgivers of the language, gradually accepted changes in all language levels and in vocabulary.

There is no hard and fast division between the literary and non-literary language. They are interdependent. The literary language constantly enriches its vocabulary and Torms from the inexhaustible resources of the vernacular. It also adopts some of its syntactica l peculiarities and by so doing gives them the status of norms of the literary lan guage. Thus selection is the most typical feature of the literary language. The process of selecting and admitting lexical or morphological forms into the literary language is not a conscious effort on the part of scholars. It is rather a reluctant concession than a free and deliberate selection. When a linguistic item circulating in the non-literary language gains admission into the sacred precincts of the literary language, it is mostly due to the conscious choice of the man-of-letters, who finds either an aesthetic value in the given unit, or some other merit that will justify its recognition as a lawful member of the literary language^

This, however, is not the case with structural units. As the national language is the creation of the people as a whole, morphological and syntactteal changes which gradually and imperceptibly take place in their speech from one generation to another, cannot fail in the long run to enter the literary language. Men-of-letters not only write the language, they also speak it and in most cases just like any one of their countrymen. Newly-coined words, or neologisms, as they are called, which are created according to the productive models of word-building in the given language do not go beyond the boundaries of the literary norms. If a newly-coined word is understood by the community, it may become a fact of the literary language. But the literary language casts off any form that is unrecognizable. The development of thp literary language is governed by its own laws. It is highly resistant to innovations of speech.

The English literary language was particularly regulated and for malized during the seventeenth. ^ an id ^eight^nth centuries. The influence of the men-of-letters on this process can hardly be over-estimated, borne of them, none the less, hindered the natural, organic process of development. Baugh1 points out that Swift, for .example,, "in matters oi language... was a conservative." Byron, on the other hand, was very liberal and introduced into the literary language many new words and pnrases. Not all of them gained recognition and stayed in the literary language; but nevertheless they were facts of the literary language У their very nature. Take, for example, the word 'weatherology' coined °У byron. -

The literary language greatly influences the non-literary language. Many words, constructions and particularly phonetic improvements have been,, introduced through it into the English colloquial language/

This influence had its greatest effect in the 19th century witH the" spread of general education, and in the present century with the introduction of radio and television into the daily lives of the people. Many words of a highly literary character have passed into the non-literary language, often undergoing peculiar morphological and phonetic dis - tortions in the process.

The non-literary language manifests itself in all aspects of the language: phonetic, morphological, lexical and syntactical.

Such formerly dialectal peculiarities as m' instead of ing; [a] instead of [aej; the dropping of [h] and the insertion of [h] at the beginning of some words; [ai] instead of [ei], [ram]— [rein], are typical phonetic peculiarities of non-literary English.

The difficulty that one faces when attempting to specify the char acteristic features of the non-literary variety lies mainly in the fact that it does not present any system. The best way to check this or that form of non-literary English is to contrast it to the existing form.

Literary English is almost synoayrnous withthe term stand a r d E fig I i sh. Standard English is best described in an interesting Book written by Randolph Quirk, Professor of English language in the University of London, the title of which is "The Use of English." He states:

"We have seen that standard English is basically an ideal, a mode of expression that we

seek when we wish to communicate beyond our immediate community with members of the wider community of the nation as a whole. As an ideal, it cannot be perfectly realised, and we must expect that members of different * wider communities' (Britain, America, Nigeria, for example) may^ produce different realisations. In fact, however, the^remarkable thing Js the very high degree of unanimity, the small amount of divergence. Any of us can read a newspaper printed in Leeds or San Francisco or Delhi without difficulty and often even without realising that there are differences at all."1

, regarded as the remnants of the London dialect, seems to be growing into a generic te№^ English in Britain; although ntDfi:stanffard varieties of English exist in territor ial variants. Literary English is. indifferent to territorial usage.

The publication of dictionaries does much to. establish the literary language norms. As a matter of fact, itis impossible to establish any norm once and for all. At the very moment it is established, it begins to fluctuate. Such fluctuations not infrequently result in considerable changes. And the compilers of English dictionaries are forced willy-nilly to acknowledge a variant and present it as co-existing alongside the one previously recognized as solely acceptable. This is particularly

the case with reference to pronunciation. The scholar fixing t he language norm is made to bow to his majesty the people.

The English literary language has had a long and peculiar history. Throughout the stages of its development there has been a struggle for ogressive tendencies, which, on the one hand, aim at barring the lan-uage from the intrusion of contaminating elements, such as jafgonisms, lang, vulgarisms and the like, and, on the other hand, at manifesting themselves in protest against the reactionary aspirations of some zealous scholars to preserve the English language in a fixed form.

The English language, as is known, is the result of the integration of the tribal dialects of the Angles, SaxonT'and Jutes who occupied C ~tfie British Isles in the 3rd —5th centuries. The first manuscripts of the language belong to the 8th century. But the language of the 8th and consecutive centuries is so unlike present-day English that Englishmen do not understand it. This language is called Angl^o -Saxon or Old English. Old English is a dead language, like Latin or classic Greek. Like TRem and like the Russian language, tit is an inflected language. The_ Old English period lasted approximately until the end of the twelftH

century. ' fa During th e next stage in its development, known as the Middle / English period, the English language rapidly progressed towards its: present state. By this time It Had greaTly enlarged its vocabulary by "borrowings from Norman-French and zither-languages. '

The structure of the language,had considerably changed due to the _ loss of most of the inflections and also to other very important changes. By the middle of the thirteenth century Norman-French, which had been the official language since the Norman Conquest in 1066, was _ almost completely ousted by English._In 1362 Parliament was first" opened in English, and a few years later court proceedings were ordered" to be carried on in English and not in French, "which was too little"" known."

The. New English period, as it is called, is .usually considered to date from the / i f t e e n th century. This 'is the beginning of the English language known, spoken and written at the present time.

This period cannot yet be characterized by any degree of uniformity in the language. The influence of the various dialects was still strongly

jfelt, but the London dialect was gradually winning general recognition. According to many historians of the English language, by the latter part of the 15th century the London dialect had been accepted as.the standard, at least in writing, in most parts of the country. This should to a very great extent be attributed to Qaxton, the first English printer, who in his translations and in the books he printed josed the current speech of Lon-

JLon. Caxton writes that he was advised bylearned men to use the most curious terms that he could find, and declares that he found himself jn a dilemma "between the plain, rude and curious. But in my judgement", n.egoes °n, "the common terms that be daily used been lighter to understand than the old and ancient English."" Puttenham, author of "The of English Poesie," declares that as the norm of literary English

"... ye shall therefore take the usual speech of the court, and that of London and the shires lying about London within LX (sixty) miles and not much above."1

But the process of establishing the London speech as a single norm throughout the country was very slow and hardly perceptible. Even the language of the 16th century, according to C. Wyld, "...both fn printed works and in private letters, still shows considerable dialectal individualism. The Standard... is not yet completely fixed."2

In the s i x tee nth^ cejituj'jLi literary English began markedly To 1ТбПГ1ШГТЬе rapid development of printing went parallel with the general -'growth of culture, to which much was contributed by the two universities, Oxford and Cambridge.

In the second half of the 16th century, a century marked by the polit ical and economic rise of England, literature began to flourish In all Jorms —drama,, poetry and prose. The works of literary criticism written "at the time show the interest awakened in poetry and drama. Frequent translations were now made from the Greek and Latin, classic" writers. П* Edmund Spenser, Christopher Marlowe, William Shakespeare, and, •'•\ later, Ben Jonson, Beaumont and Fletcher and many other writers \ ~of the period exerted a very great influence on the growth and perfection I of the English" literary language.

The freedom in the use of language so characteristic of this epoch was often subjected to wise and moderate restrictions set by these writers. So, for example, Ben Jonson, while accepting Quintillian's statement that "...custome is the most certain mistress of language," at the same time warns "...not to be frequent with every day coining", nor to use words from past ages which were no longer in use, that is, archaic words as, for instance, Chaucerisms.

In their use of the language there were two tendencies among the writers of this age: one was the free and almost unrestricted use of new 'words an4 forms, coined or ^imported into the English language; the other was the revival of archaic words, the