41. The Runic alphabet, its origin.
The runic alphabets are a set of related alphabets using letters known as runes to write various Germanic languages prior to the adoption of the Latin alphabet and for specialized purposes thereafter. The Scandinavian variants are also known as futhark (or fuþark, derived from their first six letters of the alphabet: F, U, Þ, A, R, and K); the Anglo-Saxon variant is futhorc (due to sound changes undergone in Old English by the same six letters). Runology is the study of the runic alphabets, runic inscriptions, runestones, and their history. Runology forms a specialized branch of Germanic linguistics.
The earliest runic inscriptions date from around 150 AD, and the alphabet was generally replaced by the Latin alphabet along with Christianization by around 700 AD in central Europe and by around 1100 AD in Scandinavia; however, the use of runes persisted for specialized purposes in Scandinavia, longest in rural Sweden until the early twentieth century (used mainly for decoration as runes in Dalarna and on Runic calendars).
The three best-known runic alphabets are the Elder Futhark (around 150 to 800 AD), the Old English Futhorc (400 to 1100 AD), and the Younger Futhark (800–1100). The Younger Futhark is further divided into the long-branch runes (also called Danish, although they were also used in Norway and Sweden), short-twig or Rök runes (also called Swedish-Norwegian, although they were also used in Denmark), and the Hälsinge runes (staveless runes). The Younger Futhark developed further into the Marcomannic runes, the Medieval runes (1100 AD to 1500 AD), and the Dalecarlian runes (around 1500 to 1800 AD).
The origins of the runic alphabet are uncertain. Many characters of the Elder Futhark bear a close resemblance to characters from the Latin alphabet. Other candidates are the 5th to 1st century BC Northern Italic alphabets: Lepontic, Rhaetic and Venetic, all of which are closely related to each other and descend from the Old Italic alphabet.
Each rune most probably had a name, chosen to represent the sound of the rune itself. The names are, however, not directly attested for the Elder Futhark themselves. Reconstructed names in Proto-Germanic have been produced, based on the names given for the runes in the later alphabets attested in the rune poems and the linked names of the letters of the Gothic alphabet. The asterisk before the rune names means that they are unattested reconstructions. The 24 Elder Futhark runes are:
|
Rune |
UCS |
Transliteration |
IPA |
Proto-Germanic name |
Meaning |
|
|
ᚠ |
f |
/f/ |
*fehu |
"wealth, cattle" |
|
|
ᚢ |
u |
/u(ː)/ |
?*ūruz |
"aurochs" (or *ûram "water/slag"?) |
|
|
ᚦ |
þ |
/θ/, /ð/ |
?*þurisaz |
"the god Thor,giant" |
|
|
ᚨ |
a |
/a(ː)/ |
*ansuz |
"one of the Æsir (gods)" |
|
|
ᚱ |
r |
/r/ |
*raidō |
"ride, journey" |
|
|
ᚲ |
k |
/k/ |
?*kaunan |
"ulcer"? (or *kenaz "torch"?) |
|
|
ᚷ |
g |
/g/ |
*gebō |
"gift" |
|
|
ᚹ |
w |
/w/ |
*wunjō |
"joy" |
|
|
ᚺ ᚻ |
h |
/h/ |
*hagalaz |
"hail"(the precipitation) |
|
|
ᚾ |
n |
/n/ |
*naudiz |
"need" |
|
|
ᛁ |
i |
/i(ː)/ |
*īsaz |
"ice" |
|
|
ᛃ |
j |
/j/ |
*jēra- |
"year, good year, harvest" |
|
|
ᛇ |
ï(oræ) |
/æː/(?) |
*ī(h)waz/*ei(h)waz |
"yew-tree" |
|
|
ᛈ |
p |
/p/ |
?*perþ- |
meaning unclear, perhaps "pear-tree". |
|
|
ᛉ |
z |
/z/ |
?*algiz |
unclear, possibly "elk". |
|
|
ᛊ |
s |
/s/ |
*sōwilō |
"Sun" |
|
|
ᛏ |
t |
/t/ |
*tīwaz/*teiwaz |
"the god Tiwaz" |
|
|
ᛒ |
b |
/b/ |
*berkanan |
"birch" |
|
|
ᛖ |
e |
/e(ː)/ |
*ehwaz |
"horse" |
|
|
ᛗ |
m |
/m/ |
*mannaz |
"Man" |
|
|
ᛚ |
l |
/l/ |
*laguz |
"water, lake" (or possibly *laukaz "leek") |
|
|
ᛜ ᛝ |
ŋ |
/ŋ/ |
*ingwaz |
"the god Ingwaz" |
|
|
ᛟ |
o |
/o(ː)/ |
*ōþila-/*ōþala- |
"heritage, estate, possession" |
|
|
ᛞ |
d |
/d/ |
*dagaz |
"day" |
