- •3. The pg phonology. The consonants.
- •4.Grimm’s Law. (1822 was first published in “Deutch Grammar”)
- •5. Voicing of fricatives in pg (Vern’s l.) 1877
- •6. The West Germanic lengthening of consonants.
- •7.The second consonant-shifting.
- •8. The ablaut in the Indo –European l-ges & Germanic l-ges.
- •9.The vowels.
- •11. Inflectional system of pg.
- •12. Categories of verb in Old Germ.L.
- •13. Strong verbs n Gothic.
- •14. Weak verbs in Old Germ.L.
- •Fourth Weak Conjugation
- •15. Preterite-present verbs
- •16. Infinitive, Participle
- •17. Nominals, their categories.
- •18. Categories of noun.
- •20. Strong declension of noun.
- •21. Weak declension of nouns.
- •22. Adjectives: strong and weak declension.
- •23. Pronoun, morphological categories.
- •Demonstrative
- •24. The vocabulary of pg
- •25. The ie legacy, isogloss.
- •26. Common Germ. Stock.
- •27. Borrowings, substratum, superstatum.
- •28. Simple and composite sentences.
- •29. Comparative method.
- •30. The Indo-Europeans.
- •Proto-indo-european
- •Western branch
- •Eastern branch
- •31. Tree of ie lang. Proto-indo-european
- •Western branch
- •Eastern branch
- •32. The home of Indo-Europeans.
- •33. Kentum and Satem lang-es.
- •34. Pg: concept, division.
- •35. Old North Germ. Lang-es.
- •36. Old West Germ. Lang-es.
- •37. The West Germ. Tree-diagram of lang-es.
- •38. The East-Germ. Tree of lang-es.
- •39. North Germ. Lang-es.
- •40. Old Germ. Alphabet, written records.
- •41. The Runic alphabet, its origin.
- •42. Oe, its literary monuments.
- •43. Old Icelandic, literary monuments. Old Icelandic is usually called Old Norse. Old Norse
- •44. Old Saxon, its written records.
- •45. Pliny’s classification of the Germanic tribes.
- •46. Main sources of information about the Germ. Tribes. The Germ. Tribes in the ad 1.
- •47. The age of migrations: the Visigoths.
- •48. The Ostrogoths.
- •49. Division of Frankish Empire and its linguistic consequences
- •51. Gods, days of week, months.
- •52. The Epoque of Vikings
- •53. Old Frisian ethnic community.
- •54. Oe Heptarchy. Wessex.
- •55. Angles, Saxons, Jutes and Frisians.
- •56. Paganism vs Christianity in og ethnic communities.
- •58. Material, spiritual culture.
7.The second consonant-shifting.
I ACT. PG p, t, k > OHG ff, zz, hh (in the middle of the word, or at the end of the word after vowels) > f, z, h
E.g.: p > ff, f: Goth. skip, OE. scip, PDE ship, OHG. scif; Goth slepan, PDE sleep, OHG slafan, ModG schlafen.
f > zz, z: Goth. wato, PDE water, OHG wazzar, ModG Wasser;
k > hh, h: Goth brikan, PDE break, OHG brehhan, ModG brechen
II ACT. p, t, k > OHG pf, tz, kh (at the beginning of the word, in the middle after l, r, m. n)
p > pf: OS appul, PDE apple, OHG aphul, ModG Apfel;
t > tz: Goth taihun, OHG zehan, ModG Zehn; Goth tuggo, PDE tongue, OHG zunga, ModG Zunge;
k > kh: Goth. drigkan, PDE drink, South G trinchan.
III ACT b, d, g > OHG p, t, k (Alammanic, Bavarian)
b > p: Goth. bairan, PDE bear, South G peran, ModG gebären;
d > t: Goth dags, OE dæg, PDE day, OHG tac, ModG Tag;
g > k: Goth. gasts, PDE guest, South G kast, Mod G Gast.
NB: In all the West Germanic languages almost any consonant could be geminated (doubled) before or following j, and before other consonant as well. Thus in addition to the simple consonants we also have to reckon with the doubles pp, tt, kk. This distinction is important, as the geminates were affected quite differently by the consonant shift the singles were.
8. The ablaut in the Indo –European l-ges & Germanic l-ges.
Ablaut is an independent vowel intergange unconnected with any phonetic condition; different vowels appear in the same environment,surrounded by the same sound.
The rise of ablaut is partly connected with the movement of z stress: In PIE the accent was free, in Germanic it was retracted to the initial syllable.
Vowel graduation did not reflect any phonetic changes but was used as a special independent device to differentiate between words & grammatical forms built from the same root.
The principal gradation series used in the IE l-ges was e/o/zero. In Germanic l-ges it was i/a/zero. Each members of such a series is called a grade (stupin).
There are 2 types of ablaut:
quantitative (altenation of short & long vowels).
IE e>zero, o>zero, short e> long e, short o> long o.
Gr. pater- patros(gen.)
Lat. sedo – sedi
Germ. e>zero, a > zero, short e > long e, short a > long o
OE ber – beron
qualitative ( the vowels differ in quality- change of front vowels into back)
IE e>o
везу-возити; нести-ноша.
Germ. i/e > a, i>u
Got. drigkan- dragk
OE þencan- þank
Merowingi – Nibelungi
qualitative – qualitative
IE e> o> zero.
Рус. беру- сбор-брать
Germ. i/e > a, a >long o
OHG beran – barn- giburt
OE faran – for – foron – faren
There are 5 classes of ablaut:
I: i: - ia – i – i
II: iu – au –u – u
III: i – a – u – u
IV: i – a – ē – u
V: i - a – ē – i.
Ablaut is used in strong verbs in Gothic l-ges.
I class: reisan “вставати” – rais – risum – risans
II class: kiusan “вибирати” – kaus – kusum – kusans
III class: bindan “зв”язувати”– band – bundum – bundans
IV class: stilan “красти” - stal – stēlum – stulans
V class: giban “давати” – gaf – gēbum – gibans
The vowels played an important part in the grammar of Proto-Indo-European, because of the way they alternated in related forms (as in Modern English sing, sang, sung, and this system descended to Proto-Germanic. There were several series of vowels that alternated in this way. Each member of such a series is called a grade (ступінь), and the whole phenomenon is known as gradation or ablaut. One such series in PIE, for example was ĕ, ŏ and zero. This series was used in some of the strong verbs: the e-grade appeared in the present tense, the o-grade in the past singular, and the zero-grade in the past plural and the past participle (in which the accent was originally on the ending). This is the series that was used in sing, sang, sung, though it was blurred by the vowel changes, which took place in Proto-Germanic. PIE ŏ regularly changed to PG ă, as it has been shown before.