times, real power is vested in the House of Commons; the Sovereign acts only as a figurehead and the powers of the House of Lords are greatly limited.

The United Kingdom Parliament is sometimes called the ‘Mother of Parliaments’, as the legislative bodies of many states, most notably those of the members of the Commonwealth; are modelled on it.

In the Middle Ages and early modern period there were three kingdoms within the British Isles — England, Scotland and Ireland — and these developed separate parliaments. The 1707 Acts of Union brought England and Scotland together under the Parliament of Great Britain, and the 1800 Act of Union included Ireland under the Parliament of the United Kingdom.

At the head of Parliament is the British Sovereign. The Sovereign's role, however, is merely ceremonial; in practice, he or she always acts on the advice of the Prime Minister and other ministers, who are in turn accountable to the two Houses of Parliament.

BUCKINGHAM PALACE

Buckingham Palace is the official London residence of the British monarch. The Palace is a setting for state occasions and royal entertaining, a base for many officially visiting Heads of State, and a major tourist attraction. It has been a rallying point for British people at times of national rejoicing, crisis or grief. ‘Buckingham Palace’ or simply ‘The Palace’ commonly refers to the source of Press statements issued by the offices of the Royal Household.

In the Middle Ages, Buckingham Palace's site formed part of the Manor of Ebury. It had several Royal owners from Edward the Confessor onwards and was also the object of much property speculation.

The State Rooms form the nucleus of the working Palace and are used regularly by The Queen and members of the Royal family for official and State entertaining. Buckingham Palace is one of the world's most familiar buildings and more than 50,000 people visit the Palace each year as guests to banquets, lunches, dinners, receptions and the Royal Garden Parties.

State banquets also take place in the Ballroom. These formal dinners take place on the first evening of a state visit by a visiting Head of State. On these occasions, often over 150 guests are in formal ‘white tie and decorations’ including tiaras for women, dine off gold plate. The largest and most formal reception at Buckingham Palace takes place every November, when the Queen entertains members of the foreign diplomatic corps resident in London. On this occasion all the state rooms are in use, as the entire Royal Family proceeds through them, beginning their procession through the great north doors of the Picture Gallery.

Today, Buckingham Palace is not only the home of the Queen and Prince Philip but also the London residence of the Duke of York and the Earl and Countess of Essex. The palace also houses the office of the monarchy and its associated functions.

In addition to being the weekday home of the Queen and the Duke of Edinburgh, the palace is the workplace of 450 people. Every year some 50,000 people are entertained at garden parties, receptions, audiences, and banquets. The forecourt of Buckingham Palace is used for Changing of the Guard, a major ceremony and tourist attraction.

The palace is not the private property of the Queen; Windsor Castle and Buckingham Palace and their art collections belong to the nation. The priceless furnishings, paintings, fittings and other artefacts, many by Fabergé, from Buckingham Palace and Windsor Castle are known collectively as the Royal Collection; owned by the nation, they can be viewed by the public when the palace and castle are open to the public at various times of the year.

ST PAUL'S CATHEDRAL

St Paul's Cathedral is a cathedral on Ludgate Hill, in the City of London, England and the seat of the Bishop of London. The present building dates from the 17th century, and is generally reckoned to be London's fourth St Paul's Cathedral, although the number is higher if every major medieval reconstruction is counted as a new cathedral. The cathedral is one of London's most visited sites.

The task of designing a structure was assigned to Christopher Wren in 1668, along with over fifty other City churches. His first design was rejected in 1669. The second design, in the shape of a Greek cross was rejected as too radical. The 'warrant' design was accepted in 1675 and building work began in June. This design included a smaller dome with a spire on top, however King Charles II had given Wren permission to make ‘ornamental’ changes to the approved design, and Wren took the liberty to radically rework the design to the current form, including the large central dome and the towers at the West end. The cathedral was completed on October 20, 1708, Wren's 76th birthday (although the first service was held on December 2, 1697).

The British Royal Family holds most of their important marriages, christenings and funerals at Westminster Abbey, but St Paul's was used for the marriage of Charles, Prince of Wales and Lady Diana Spencer.

The cathedral is open to the public, though there is a charge for non-worshipping visitors. In 2000, the cathedral began a major restoration programme, scheduled for completion in 2008, to celebrate the 300th anniversary of its opening. The restoration programme is expected to cost £40 million, and involves not only repair and cleaning of the building, but also improvement of visitor facilities - such as accessibility for the disabled, and provision of additional educational facilities.

Because of its prominent and recognizable form on the skyline, a view which is protected from many vantage points, St Paul's is often used in movies as part of an establishing shot to place the viewers in London.

SOHO

Soho is an area of central London's West End, in the borough of the City of Westminster. It is an area of approximately one square mile bounded by Oxford Street to the north, Regent Street to the west, Shaftesbury Avenue to the south, and Charing Cross Road to the east.

The area which is now Soho was grazing farmland until 1536 when it was taken by Henry VIII as a royal park for the Palace of Whitehall. The name Soho first appears in the 17th century. The name is derived from a shortening of Somerset House, a grand palace to be found to the south of the strand, built in 1547. It is part of Soho folklore that the area’s name derives from the ancient ‘soho!’ hunting call; though by the time the name was in use, hunting had ceased in the area. The name is also believed to have

come from the nickname of the Duke of Monmouth who used ‘soho’ as a rallying call for his men, and who in the 1600s was among the first to build in the area. There is an indication that he may have given one of his houses the name Soho.

Soho is a small, multicultural area of central London which is home to industry, commerce, culture and entertainment, as well as a residential area for both rich and poor. For centuries it has housed waves of immigrants: the French church in Soho Square is witness to its position as a centre for French Huguenots in the 17th and 18th centuries.

Soho is famed for its many clubs, pubs, bars, and restaurants, as well as late night coffee shops that give the street an ‘open all night’ feel at the weekends.

Soho is near the heart of London's theatre area, and is a centre of the independent film and video industry as well as the television and film post-production industry. It is home to Soho Theatre, purpose built in 2000 to present new plays and stand-up comedy.

Why do the British like going to the pub?

One of the main attractions of the pub for all regular pub goers is that it offers good company in friendly surroundings. Where else can you appear as a complete stranger and at once be able to join in a conversation with a diverse group of people? Often the style of the pub and its locality will dictate the kind of clientele you can expect to find there. Village pubs with their country furnishings and real ales attract not only local folk but city dwellers out for a drive, hikers fresh from a long day's walk and pensioners enjoying a pub lunch. City pubs tend to have a more mixed clientele - businessmen and women discussing the latest deal, theatregoers or groups of friends enjoying a drink together before going off to a restaurant or nightclub.

Good conversation and good beer are two essential items provided by the pub. The drinking of beer in a public house is not compulsory, but as any publican will tell you, beer remains the mainstay of the trade. It is said that beer is the perfect drink for the pub - it comes in large measures (one pint glasses) so that just one drink provides plenty of conversation time! Many pubs also serve food, from snacks to full meals.

Other attractions offered by city and country pubs alike include a game of darts (short, weighted steel darts are thrown at a circular dartboard numbered in sections) and snooker, a game similar to billiards.

The lure of the pub can lie in the variety of pub names; each pub has its own name, depicted on a painted inn sign hung outside the premises.

A pub name can refer to historical events, landmarks, sundry beasts or its meaning can be a complete puzzle. Some include references to animals, many with their origins in heraldry - the White Hart, the Nag's Head, the Black Bull, and the Bear to name but a few!

What is the most popular food in Britain?

Britain's most popular 'fast food' has got to be fish and chips. Fish and chip shops first made an appearance at the end of the 19th century and since then have been a firm favourite up and down the country. The dish is simplicity itself: fish (usually cod, haddock or plaice) is dipped in a batter made

from flour, eggs and water and then deep fried in hot fat. Chips are made from thick batons of potato and deep fried.

Fish and chips are served over the counter wrapped in paper, and traditionalists prefer to eat them straight out of the paper because they taste better that way!

The best-known British dish eaten at home has been roast beef, traditionally eaten on Sunday. The dish used to be so popular in England that the French still refer to the British as 'Les rosbifs'! Roast beef is served with roast potatoes, vegetables and gravy (a sauce made from meat juices and stock, thickened with flour). Yorkshire pudding - batter baked in hot fat in the oven - is a favourite accompaniment to roast beef.

What are the most common superstitions in Britain?

There are many superstitions in Britain, but one of the most widely-held is that it is unlucky to walk under a ladder even if it means stepping off the pavement into a busy street!

If you must pass under a ladder you can avoid bad luck by crossing your fingers and keeping them crossed until you've seen a dog. Alternatively, you must lick your finger and make a cross on the toe of your shoe, and not look again at the shoe until the mark has dried.

Another common superstition is that it is unlucky to open an umbrella in the house - it will either bring misfortune to the person that opened it or to the household. Anyone opening an umbrella in fine weather is unpopular, as it inevitably brings rain!

The number 13 is said to be unlucky for some, and when the 13th day of the month falls on a Friday, anyone wishing to avoid an inauspicious event had better stay indoors.

The worst misfortune that can befall you is incurred by breaking a mirror, as it brings seven years of bad luck! The superstition is supposed to have originated in ancient times, when mirrors were considered to be tools of the gods.

Black cats are generally considered lucky in Britain, even though they are associated with witchcraft - a witch's animal-familiar is usually a black cat. It is especially lucky if a black cat crosses your path - although in America the exact opposite belief prevails.

Finally, a commonly-held superstition is that of touching wood for luck. This measure is most often taken if you think you have said something that is tempting fate, such as 'my car has never broken down - touch wood!’

How do the British spend their leisure time?

Britain's most common leisure activities are home-based or social. Watching television and videos, and listening to the radio are by far the most popular leisure pastimes, with an average of 20 hours a week devoted to these. Britain's regular weekly dramas or 'soap operas' such as 'EastEnders' and 'Coronation Street' have more viewers than any other programme.

Listening to music is also a popular pastime, with nearly 140 million compact discs (CDs) bought in 1995. Pop and rock albums are the most common type of music bought, and pop is by far the most popular form of musical expression in Britain.

The most common free-time activity outside the home amongst adults is a visit to the pub. Other popular leisure activities include visits to the theatre or cinema. There are over 1,500 cinemas in Britain, and in 1995 nearly one in five adults visited the cinema two or three times. Britain also has about 300 theatres, of which about 100 are in London. Britain's most famous theatre company, The Royal Shakespeare Company, performs in Stratford-upon-Avon, Shakespeare's birthplace, and in

London.

Of all sporting activities, walking is by far the most popular for men and women of all ages. Whilst men tend to dominate golf and cue sports such as snooker and billiards, women generally prefer

swimming, keep-fit classes and yoga.

How are the police organised?

There are 52 police forces in Britain, mainly organised on a local basis. The Metropolitan Police Force and the City of London force are responsible for policing London.

Each force in England and Wales is responsible to a police authority consisting of local councillors, magistrates and independent members. Since April 1996 the police authority in Scotland comprises four joint police boards made up of local councillors. The police force in Northern Ireland, the Royal Ulster Constabulary, is responsible to an independent police authority appointed by the Secretary of State for Northern Ireland. For historical reasons, the Home Secretary is responsible for London's Metropolitan Police Force, advised by the Metropolitan Police Committee. For the City of London Police the authority is a committee of the Corporation of London.

Provincial forces are headed by a chief constable, deputy chief constable and assistant chief constable. The top Metropolitan Police ranks are the commissioner, deputy commissioner, assistant commissioner, deputy assistant commissioner and commander. Thereafter all ranks are the same in the forces - chief superintendent, superintendent, chief inspector, inspector, sergeant and constable.

Police community liaison consultative groups operate in every police authority; they consist of representatives from the police, local councillors and community groups. Most forces use customer surveys to provide information on public attitudes. These are used to shape the standards of service being provided.

The heart of policing is the work done by police constables, who are in constant contact with the public. They patrol the streets on foot or in cars, give advice and deal with disturbances. Local crime prevention panels each one assisted by the police - identify crime problems and try to tackle them through publicity. The police are closely involved in setting up 'neighbourhood watch' schemes, advising residents on home security and encouraging residents to keep an eye on properties in their area and pass on information to the police about suspicious people or vehicles.

There are about 150,000 full-time police officers in Britain, of whom around 12 per cent are women.

When can the police carry guns?

Usually uniformed police officers carry a truncheon or baton to protect themselves against violence. In England, Scotland and Wales firearms may be issued only to specially trained police officers, known as Authorised Firearms Officers, and then only on the authority of a senior officer.

Authority is given when an officer is likely to face an armed criminal or when an officer is deployed to protect a person who may be at risk of attack. Officers may fire weapons only as a last resort if they believe that their or other lives are in danger.

Each Authorised Firearms Officer is personally responsible for the decision to fire, and may be required to justify this action before the courts.

Most forces in England and Wales operate a system of armed response vehicles - patrol cars which carry weapons in a locked box - to provide a speedy initial response to a firearms incident.

Because of terrorist campaigns in Northern Ireland, members of the Royal Ulster Constabulary carry firearms for personal protection.

What is the oldest university in Britain?

The University of Oxford was the first university to be established in Britain. Dating from the 12th century, it is organised as a federation of colleges which are governed by their own teaching staff known as 'fellows'. The oldest college, University College, was founded in 1249. Other notable colleges include All Souls (founded in 1438), Christ church (founded in 1546 by Cardinal Wolsey), the college chapel of which is also Oxford Cathedral, and Lady Margaret Hall

(founded in 1878), which was the first.

Today Oxford University is made up of 35 separate colleges, of which two are for women students only, and the rest take both men and women.

In 1208, scholars running away from riots in Oxford set up the first academic community in Cambridge. The University is also organised as a federation of colleges; the oldest, Peterhouse, dates from 1284. The largest college, Trinity, was founded by King Henry VIII in 1546.

Scotland also boasts a number of long-established universities. By the end of the Middle Ages Scotland had

four universities at Edinburgh (founded 1583), Glasgow (founded 1450), Aberdeen (founded 1494) and St Andrew's (founded 1411) compared to England's two!

The University of Wales was founded in 1893. It consists of six colleges, the oldest one being St David's University College in Lampeter, founded in 1822.

Queen's University, Belfast was founded in 1845 as Queen's College, Belfast, part of the Queen's University of Ireland which had other colleges at Cork and Galway. It received its charter as a separate university in 1908.

What are Britain's national costumes?

England

Although England is a country rich in folklore and traditions, it has no definitive 'national' costume. The most well-known folk costumes are those of the Morris dancers. They can be seen in many country villages during the summer months performing folk

the Scottish kilt with its distinctive tartan pattern. The kilt is a length of woollen cloth, pleated except for sections at each end. The kilt is worn around the waist, with the pleats at the back and the ends crossed over at the front and secured with a pin.

Each Scottish Clan or family has its own distinctive tartan pattern, made up of different colours, and an official register of tartans is maintained by the Scottish Tartans Society in Perthshire.

The kilt forms part of the traditional Highland dress, worn by Scottish clansmen and Scottish regiments. In addition to the kilt, a plaid or tartan cloak is worn over one shoulder, and a goatskin pouch or sporran is worn at the front of the kilt. Sometimes tartan trousers or trews are worn instead of a kilt. Women do not have their own distinctive national dress in Scotland, although tartan fabrics are widely used in clothing, and the kilt is also worn.

Wales

The national costume of Wales is based on the peasant costume of the 18th and 19th centuries. Because Wales was isolated geographically from the rest of Britain, many of the individual traits of costume and materials were retained in Welsh dress long after they had died out elsewhere.

Unlike Scotland, the distinctive folk costume of Wales was worn by the women, consisting of a long gown (bedgown) or skirt, worn with a petticoat (pais - the favoured colour was scarlet) and topped with a shawl folded diagonally to form a triangle and

draped around the shoulders, with one corner hanging down and two others pinned in front. Aprons were universally worn, sometimes simple, sometimes decorated with colourful embroidery.

The most distinctive part of the costume was the tall black 'Welsh hat' or 'beaver hat', thought to have originated in France at the end of the 18th century. The hats had a tall crown, cylindrical or conical in shape with a wide brim, and were usually trimmed with a band of silk or crepe.

Northern Ireland

Early Irish dress, based on Gaelic and Norse costumes, consisted of check trews for men, worn with a fringed cloak or mantle, or a short tunic for both men and women, worn with a fringed cloak. This style of dressing was prohibited in the 16th century under sumptuary laws, passed to suppress the distinctive Irish dress and so overcome Irish reluctance to become part of England. In particular, the wearing of the fringed cloak was forbidden; as was the wearing of trews or any saffron-coloured garment (saffron yellow was an important feature of Irish costume).

Although a strong tradition of wearing folk costume does not survive in Northern Ireland today, folk music and folk dancing are very important.

What is haggis?

Haggis is Scotland’s best-known regional dish, a rich, spicy concoction made from lamb’s offal (lungs, liver and heart) mixed with suet, onions, herbs and spices, all packed into a skin made of plastic, or, traditionally, a sheep’s stomach.

Traditionally served on Burn’s Night, the haggis is often accompanied by mashed potatoes and mashed swede or turnips. Although the haggis neither sounds nor looks appetising most people brave enough to try it agree that it is extremely tasty!

Is it true that a lot of British dishes are named after places?

The rich variety of British regional cooking is reflected in the names of our favourite dishes. Many regions have their own particular speciality of sweet or savoury fare, or are famed for their local produce.

Cheeses are produced in many regions, although Cheddar cheese, a strongflavoured, salty cheese is the most popular variety. It originates from a village in Somerset in western England is also famous for its gorge. Other types of cheeses include Cheshire, Lancashire, Stilton and Wensleydale.

Cornwall in south-west England is famous for its Cornish Pasties - a pastry case filled with meat, potatoes and vegetables, which was the traditional midday meal of workers in the region.

The town of Bakewell in Derbyshire has a rich pastry tart named after it. The Bakewell pudding or Bakewell tart was said to have been invented by accident, when a cook forgot to put jam over the custard filling of a pudding - instead

she spread it straight onto the pastry case and poured the custard on top. Thus a new dish was born!

Welsh cakes, a kind of sweet cake cooked on a griddle, were originally served to hungry travellers when they arrived at an inn for the night while they waited for their supper to be cooked.

Many other dishes are named after places - everything from Lancashire hotpot (a casserole of meat and vegetables topped with sliced potatoes) and Scottish shortbread (a sweet, buttery biscuit) to Welsh rarebit (nothing to do with rabbit, but melted cheese on toast!), baked Ulster ham, and Bath buns (a sweet bun containing spices and dried fruit, originally made in Bath, western England). Indeed, dedicated gourmets could happily munch their way from one county to another!

Why is the Tower of London so popular with tourists?

The Tower of London is one of the most popular and imposing of London's historical sites. It comprises not one, but 20 towers, the oldest of which, the White Tower, dates back to the 11th century and the time of William the Conqueror. It is the Tower's evil reputation as a

prison that ensures it remains a much visited tourist spot today, together with the rich and varied history that surrounds it.

Many stories associated with British history come from the Tower. In 1483 King Edward IV's two sons were murdered in the so-called Bloody Tower, and over two centuries later the skeletons of two little boys were found buried beneath steps in the White Tower, assumed to be the bodies of the princes.

Traitor's Gate, set in the southern wall of the Tower, has steps leading down to the River Thames. Countless prisoners, including the future Queen Elizabeth I of England, were brought to the Tower by barge, and ascended the steps before being imprisoned - for many it was their last moment of freedom before their death. Fortunately, Elizabeth was released from the Tower and became Queen.

Elizabeth I's father, Henry VIII, made the Tower the dread destination of his enemies. Sir Thomas More was beheaded there in 1535 and the King's second wife, Anne Boleyn, was brought to trial there in 1536 and beheaded on Tower Green. Six years later her cousin, Catherine Howard, Henry VIII's fifth wife, suffered the same fate.

The Tower is famous as home of the Crown Jewels. Today they can be viewed in their new jewel house from a moving pavement, designed to cope with the huge numbers of tourists. They include the Crown of Queen Elizabeth the Queen Mother which contains the celebrated Indian diamond, the Koh-I-Noor (mountain of light), and St Edward's Crown which is used for the actual crowning of the Sovereign and weighs over two kilograms.

Everyone has heard of the Yeoman Warders of the Tower or 'Beefeaters', whose striking Tudor uniform has changed little since 1485. The uniform consists of a kneelength scarlet tunic, scarlet knee-breeches and stockings, and a round brimmed hat called a Tudor bonnet. Their distinctive white neck ruff was introduced by Queen Elizabeth I.

No visit to the Tower would be complete without seeing the ravens; huge black birds who are an official part of the Tower community. Legend states that if the ravens were to leave the Tower the Crown will fall and Britain with it. Under the special care of the Raven Master, the ravens are fed a daily diet of raw meat paid for out of a special fund set aside by Parliament. There is no danger of them flying away, as their wings are clipped!

At what age do children go to school in Britain?

Children in Britain must attend school from the age of 5 (4 in Northern Ireland) until they are 16. Before the start of formal schooling, many children attend nursery schools or nursery classes attached to primary schools. In addition, some parents elect to send their children to private (fee-paying) nursery schools or kindergartens. In England

and Wales, many primary schools also operate an early admission policy where they admit children under 5 into what are called reception classes.

Children first attend the infants' school or department. At 7 they move to the junior school and the usual age for transfer from junior to secondary school is 11 (12 in Scotland). In some areas, however, 'first' schools take pupils aged 5 to 8, 9 or 10, and pupils within the 8 to 14 age range go to 'middle' schools.

What are the different types of secondary school?

Over 85 per cent of secondary school pupils go to comprehensive schools. These take children of all abilities, and provide a wide range of secondary education for all or most of the children in a district from the age of 11 to 16 or 16.

There are also other types of secondary school. Grammar schools offer a mainly academic education for the 11 to 18-year age group. Children enter grammar schools on the basis of their abilities, first sitting the ‘11’ plus or entrance examination. Grammar schools cater for four per cent of children in secondary education.

A small minority of children attend secondary modern schools (around four per cent). These schools provide a more general and technical education for children aged 11-16.

City Technology Colleges (CTCs) aim to give boys and girls a broad secondary education with a strong technological and business slant. They are non-fee-paying independent schools, set up by the Government with the help of business sponsors who finance a large proportion of the initial capital costs and develop links with the schools. There are now 15 such colleges, in operation in England and Wales.

Specialist schools, which only operate in England, give pupils a broad secondary education with a strong emphasis on technology, languages, arts or sports. There are over 250 specialist schools. They charge no fees and any secondary school can apply for specialist school status.

Why are ‘public’ schools so called?

The independent school sector is separate from the state educational system, and caters for some seven per cent of all schoolchildren in England and four per cent in Scotland.

Parents of pupils attending independent schools pay for their education, and in some cases fees can amount to several thousand pounds a year. Some pupils gain scholarships and their expenses are covered by the schools.

About 250 of the larger independent schools are known for historical reasons as public schools. Eton, which was founded in 1440, is said to have been the first grammar school to be called a ‘public school’ because scholars could come to it from any part of England and not, as was generally the case, just from the immediate neighbourhood.

Originally, many public schools stressed a classical education, character training and sports, but the curriculum is now closely allied to state education.

In Northern Ireland there are a few independent fee paying schools catering for a very small proportion of the school population; they do not receive any support from public funds.

Schools in Scotland supported by public funds are also called 'public schools' but they are not fee-paying, independent schools.

Why does the Queen have two birthdays?

The Queen was actually born on 21 April, but it has long been customary to celebrate the Sovereign's birthday on a day during the summer. Since 1805 the Sovereign's 'official' birthday has been marked by the Trooping the Colour ceremony, normally held on the second Saturday in June.

This is a ceremony which originated when it was essential for soldiers to recognise the flag or 'Colour' of their regiment so that they could follow it into battle. Each year one of the five regiments of the foot guards (Grenadiers, Cold stream Guards, Scots, Irish and Welsh Guards) take turns to display their Colour

in the ceremony.

The ceremony begins with the Queen leaving Buckingham Palace escorted by the Household Cavalry. She rides down The Mall to Horse Guards Parade and inspects the 500 guardsmen.

The Colour is trooped by being carried along the ranks of guardsmen, and the Colour party then leads the guards on a march past the Queen, accompanied by the massed bands of the foot guards.

No particular annual ceremony is held on the Queen's true birthday, although the Union Flag is flown on public buildings and the national anthem is sung.

Why the heir to the throne is called the Prince of Wales?

The Heir Apparent has, since the institution of the title by King Edward I in 1301, usually been 'created' Prince of Wales. Edward I led the conquest of independent Wales between 1277 and 1283. He subsequently proclaimed his son, Edward, born at Caernarfon in Wales in 1284, the Prince of Wales. There is no succession to the title, which is only renewed at the Sovereign's pleasure. The present Prince of Wales is the 21st in line counting several who were never formally invested!

Prince Charles was created Prince of Wales at Caernarfon Castle on July 1st

1969.

How should one address someone with a title?

Information on the protocol of addressing holders of honours and titles can be found in 'Whitaker's Almanac' (published annually) and 'Debrett's Correct Form' (Webb and Bower, Exeter).

Some examples are:

The Queen is addressed as “Your Majesty” and subsequently “Ma’am”

A Royal Prince is addressed as “Your Royal Highness” and subsequently “Sir”.

A Royal Princess is addressed as “Your Royal Highness" and subsequently “Ma’am”. A Knight is addressed as “Sir” and the wife of a Knight as “Lady”.

An Archbishop is addressed as “Your Grace”and a Bishop is addressed as “My Lord”.

An Ambassador is addressed as “Your Excellency”. In writing they should be addressed as “Dear Ambassador” or “Dear High Commissioner” if a representative of a Commonwealth country, or very formally as “Your Excellency”.

What powers does the Queen have?

The Crown, which represents both the Sovereign (the person on whom the Crown is constitutionally conferred) and the Government, is the symbol of supreme executive power. The Crown is vested in the Queen, but in general its functions are exercised by Ministers responsible to Parliament and thus Britain is governed by Her Majesty's Government in the name of the Queen. However, the Queen's involvement is still required in many important acts of government.

Parliament

The Queen summons, prorogues (discontinues until the next session without dissolving) and dissolves Parliament. She normally opens the new session of Parliament with a speech from the throne which is written for her by the Government and outlines her Government's programme. Before a Bill becomes law the Queen must give it her Royal Assent, which is announced to both Houses of Parliament.

Justice

The Queen can, on ministerial advice, pardon or show mercy to those convicted of crimes. In law the Queen as a private person can do no wrong: she is immune from civil or criminal proceedings and cannot be sued in courts of law. This immunity is not shared by other members of the royal family.

Honours and appointments

The Queen has the power to confer peerages, knighthoods and other honours. She normally does this on the recommendation of the Prime Minister, although a few honours are conferred by the Sovereign personally. The Queen makes appointments to many important state offices, on the advice of the Prime Minister or the relevant Cabinet Minister.

Foreign policy

Foreign diplomatic representatives in London are accredited to the Queen, and she has the power to conclude treaties, to declare war' and to make peace, to recognise foreign states and governments and to annex and cede territory.

Privy Council

The Queen presides over meetings of the Privy Council. At these, among other things, Orders in Council made under the Royal Prerogative or under statute are approved. The Royal Prerogative mainly comprises executive government -

powers controlled by constitutional conventions (rules which are not part of the law, but which are regarded as indispensable to the machinery of government).

In nearly all cases acts involving the

Royal Prerogative are performed by Ministers who are

responsible to Parliament and can be questioned about policies. Parliament has the power to abolish or restrict a prerogative right.

In addition to being informed and consulted about all aspects of national life, the Queen is free to put forward her own views, in private, for the consideration of her Ministers.

What does the Union Jack stand for and how should it be flown?

The flag of Britain, commonly known as the Union Jack (which derives from the use of the Union Flag on the jackstaff of naval vessels), embodies the emblems of three countries under one Sovereign. The emblems that appear on the Union Flag are the crosses of three patron saints:

the red cross of St. George, for England, on a white ground;

the white diagonal cross, or saltire, of St. Andrew, for Scotland, on a blue ground;

the red diagonal cross of St. Patrick, for Ireland, on a white ground.

The final version of the Union Flag appeared in 1801, following the union of Great Britain with Ireland, with the inclusion of the cross of St Patrick. The cross remains in the flag although now only Northern Ireland is part of the United Kingdom.

Wales is not represented in the Union Flag because, when the first version of the flag appeared, Wales was already united with England. The national flag of Wales, a red dragon on a field of white and green, dates from the 15th century and is

widely used throughout the Principality.

The Union Flag should be flown with the broader diagonal band of white uppermost in the hoist (near the pole) and the narrower diagonal band of white uppermost in the fly (furthest from the pole).

Why doesn’t Britain have a written constitution?

The British constitution has evolved over many centuries. Unlike the constitutions of America, France and many Commonwealth countries, the British constitution has not been assembled at any time into a single, consolidated document. Instead it is made up of common law, statute law and convention.

Of all the democratic countries in the world, only Israel is comparable to Britain in having no single document codifying the way its political institutions function and setting out the rights and duties of its citizens. Britain does, however, have certain important constitutional documents, including the Magna Carta (1215) which protects the rights of the community against the Crown; the Bill of Rights (1689) which extended the powers of Parliament, making it impracticable for the Sovereign to ignore the wishes of the Government; and the Reform Act (1832), which reformed the system of parliamentary representation.

Common law has never been precisely defined – it is deduced from custom or legal precedents and interpreted in court cases by judges. Conventions are rules and

practices which are not legally enforceable, but which are regarded as indispensable to the working of government. Many conventions are derived from the historical events through which the British system of government has evolved. One convention is that Ministers are responsible and can be held to account for what happens in their Departments. The constitution can be altered by Act of Parliament, or by general agreement to alter a convention.

The flexibility of the British constitution helps to explain why it has developed so fully over the years. However, since Britain joined the European Community in 1973, the rulings of the European Court of Justice have increasingly determined and codified sections of British law in those areas covered by the various treaties to which Britain is a party. In the process British constitutional and legal arrangements are beginning to resemble those of Europe.

What was the Magna Carta?

The Magna Carta (Latin for ‘Great Charter’) is Britain’s best known constitutional document. In 1215 feudal barons forced the ‘tyrannical’ King John (11991216) to agree to a series of concessions embodied in a charter which became known as the Magna Carta. Sixty-one clauses set out a clear expression of the rights of the community against the Crown. The contents deal with the ‘free’ Church; feudal law; towns, trade and merchants; the reform of the law and justice; the behaviour of royal officials; and royal forests.

The King was forced to fix his seal to the Magna Carta in a meadow next to the River Thames at Runnymede between Windsor and Staines. It is said that he behaved pleasantly to the nobles at the time, but as soon as he returned to his own chamber he threw himself on the floor in a mad rage.

Since that day the Magna Carta has become part of English Law and established the important principle that the King is not above the law.

Original copies of the charter exist in Salisbury Cathedral, Lincoln Castle and the British Museum in London.

Why are Ambassadors sent to the Court of St. James’s?

Ambassadors are sent to the Court of St. James’s because they are appointed ambassadors to the country of the United Kingdom and the Head of State is the Queen. For historical reasons the Royal Court is known as the Court of St. James; St. James’s Palace was the official residence of the Monarch until Queen Victoria moved to Buckingham Palace.

How does Britain elect its government?

Parliament, the law-making body of the British people, consists of three elements: the Monarchy, the House of Commons and the House of Lords. They meet together only on occasions of ceremonial significance, such as the state opening of Parliament, although the agreement of all three is normally required for legislation.

The House of Commons consists of 659 elected members called Members of Parliament or MPs. Its main purpose is to make laws by passing Acts of Parliament, as well as to discuss current political issues. Elections to the House of Commons are an important part of Britain's democratic system.

The House of Lords consists of around 1,270 non-elected members (hereditary peers and peeresses, life peers and peeresses and two archbishops and 24 senior bishops of the Church of England). Its main legislative function is to examine and revise bills from the Commons. It also acts in a legal capacity as the final court of appeal. The Lords cannot normally prevent proposed legislation from becoming law if the Commons insists on it.

General elections are held after Parliament has been' dissolved', either by a royal proclamation or because the maximum term between elections - five years - has expired. The decision on when to hold a general election is made by the Prime Minister.

For electoral purposes Britain is divided into constituencies, each of which returns one MP to the House of Commons. The British electoral system is based on the relative majority method - sometimes called the 'first past the post' principle - which means the candidate with more votes than any other is elected.

All British citizens together with citizens of other Commonwealth countries and citizens of the Irish Republic resident in Britain may vote, provided they are aged 18 years or over and not legally barred from voting. People not entitled to vote include those serving prison sentences, peers and peeresses who are members of the House of Lords, and those kept in hospital under mental health legislation.

Voting is by secret ballot. The elector selects just one candidate on the ballot paper and marks an 'X' by the candidate's name. Voting in elections is voluntary. On average about 75 per cent of the electorate votes.

Any person aged 21 or over who is a British citizen or citizen of another Commonwealth country or the Irish Republic may stand for election to Parliament, provided they are not disqualified. People disqualified include those who are bankrupt, those sentenced to more than one year's imprisonment, members of the clergy, members of the House of Lords, and a range of public servants and officials. Approved candidates are usually selected by their political party organisations in the constituency which they represent, although candidates do not have to have party backing.

The leader of the political party which wins most seats (although not necessarily most votes) at a general election, or who has the support of a majority of members in the House of Commons, is by convention invited by the Sovereign to form the new government.

Devolution to Scotland and Wales

The Government intends to give the people of Scotland and Wales more control over their own affairs by setting up a Scottish Parliament and a Welsh Assembly. These plans were supported by the Scottish and Welsh people in referenda held in September 1997.

The Scottish Parliament in Edinburgh will have 129 members -7.3 directly elected on a constituency basis, plus 56 elected by proportion of representation, and will open in 1999 for a four-year fixed term. It will have the same powers as those currently exercised by Scottish Office Ministers and will be able to make laws and raise or lower the basic rate of income tax'by up to three per cent. Scotland will continue to elect MPs to Westminster to represent Scottish interests.

The Welsh Assembly, which will open in May 1999 in Cardiff, will have 60 members, directly elected every four years. It will debate issues of concern in Wales and

be responsible for the current Welsh Office's budget, but the Principality will continue to share the same legal system as England.

What are the origins of the names of the main political parties?

The Conservative and Unionist Party dates back to the Tory Party of the late eighteenth century. This broadly represented the interests of the country gentry, merchant classes and official ministerial groups. After Britain's 1832 (electoral) Reform Act, members of the old Tory Party began forming 'conservative associations'. The name Conservative was first used as a description of the Party in the Quarterly Review of January 1830 - 'conservative' because the Party aims to conserve traditional values and practices. The Conservative Party today is the leading right-wing party. The term 'Tory' is still used today to refer to somebody with conservative political views.

The original title of the Labour Party, the Labour Representation Committee, makes the origins of the party clear - to promote the interests of the industrial working class. In 1900 the Trades Union Congress co-operated with the Independent Labour Party (founded 1893) to establish The Labour Representation Committee with Ramsay MacDonald as First Secretary. This took the name Labour Party in 1906.

The Liberal Party emerged in the mid-nineteenth century as a successor to the historic Whig party. 'Whig' was originally a Scottish Gaelic term applied to horse thieves! In the late eighteenth century the Whig Party represented those who sought electoral, parliamentary and philanthropic reforms. However, the term 'Whig' does not survive today. After 1832 the mainly aristocratic Whigs were joined by increasing numbers of middle-class members. By 1839 the term Liberal Party was being used, and the first unequivocally Liberal government was formed in 1868 by William Gladstone. In 1988 the old Liberal Party and the Social Democratic Party (SDP) merged into a single party called the Liberal Democrats.

How is the Speaker chosen?

Contrary to what the title would imply, the Speaker of the House of Commons does not speak - that is, he or she does not make speeches or take part in debates. The office has been held continuously since 1377 and originally the Speaker spoke on behalf of the Commons to the Monarch. That role is now largely ceremonial and today the Speaker's central function is to maintain order in a debate, and he or she may not vote other than in an official capacity that is when the result of a vote is a tie. Even then, he or she is not allowed to express an opinion on the merits of the question under debate and must vote in such a way as to give the House another chance to decide.

The Speaker has three deputies - the Chairman of Ways and Means and his or her two Deputy Chairmen. Like the Speaker,

they can neither speak nor vote other than in their official capacity.

The Speaker is neither a Minister nor a member of any political party. He or she is still a Member of Parliament, representing a constituency and the constituents' interests.

The choice of Speaker is by election, with Members of Parliament each having one vote. Though the Cabinet and Prime Minister will often be known to favour a particular candidate when a vacancy occurs, support from backbench MPs is vital. In 1992 Betty Boothroyd was elected in a contest with the former Cabinet Minister, Peter Brooke. Usually a Speaker is elected by his or her fellow MPs without opposition.

What is a ‘whip’ in Parliament?

The term 'whip' is said to owe its origin to the 'whippers-in' people who keep the hounds in order at fox-hunting meets. Parliamentary whips are supposed to be similar disciplinarians, controlling the pack of MPs in their party!

Government whips are all Ministers of the Crown. The principal task of the Chief Whip is the management of government business in the House. He or she must try to ensure that, in spite of the activities of the opposition; Parliament has passed all the legislation and done all the tasks which it had planned during that session.

Whips in the two main parties are organised by subject and by region. They monitor opinions inside their party and report back to the leadership, maintaining valuable day-to-day contact between ministers and their backbench supporters.

'The Whip' also refers to a document sent out weekly to MPs detailing the forthcoming business of the House. Items are underlined once, twice or three times to indicate their importance to the party leadership. When a 'three-line' whip is issued, the leadership is letting MPs know that it expects them to turn up and vote on the matter under discussion!

WASHINGTON

Welcome to Washington, the capital of the USA! Today I'm going to discover it for you. This spotlight on Washington will help you to realise: what a diverse city it is!

First of all some facts about history of the city. Do you know what city was the first American capital? So, the capital had been located earlier in New York City and then in Philadelphia. Only in 1790 it was decided that the new country needed a new city and Congress chose the District of Columbia. Current President George Washington himself helped pick the spot - a marshy area where the Potomac and Anacostia rivers come together. French-born American engineer, architect, and urban designer Pierre Charles L'Enfant created a design based on Versailles, which features wide avenues radiating from the Capitol building through a grid of streets with numerous circles and parks. During the War of 1812, the British burnt parts of Washington. (How awful it looked!) This episode did, however, give the White House its name. The president's house was one of the buildings burnt, and after the war it was painted white to cover the marks.

Now we are going to circle around my favourite part of the tour - the Mall. Travelling around Washington, most of tourists are going to visit the White House, the Capitol (where Congress meets to make the laws of the country), the Library of Congress and the presidential monuments.

Just ahead of us you'll see a red brick building. That's the origin of the Smithsonian Institution. It is a group of over a dozen museums and research and publication facilities, such as the Museum of Natural History, the Museum of History and Technology, the National Zoo, and the National Gallery of Arts. How difficult to

choose! Our group is going to visit world-famous the National Air and Space Museum. Hurry up! The museum closes at 6 p.m. Today, The Smithsonian has about 140 million objects. It will take you 265 years to see everything. It has aircraft and spacecraft that were important in aviation history. You'll see the craft in which O. Wright made the first manned flight and the plane in which Charles Lindberg made the first solo flight across the Atlantic. Museum has the command module that returned the Apollo 11 astronauts to earth after their moon landing, and there you'll even see the rock that the astronauts brought back! We hope you've enjoyed your tour and that you'll have a pleasant stay in Washington.

AMERICAN ORIGINALS

The Hot Dog was called the frankfurter after Frankfurt, a German city. Frankfurters were first sold in the U.S. in the 1880s. Americans called them “dachshund sausages”. A dachshund is a dog with a very long body and short legs. “Dachshund sausages” became popular at baseball games. The men walked up and down rows and yelled, ‘Get your dachshund sausages!’ One day in 1906 a newspaper cartoonist Tad Dorgan got an idea of a cartoon. He drew a bun with a dachshund inside. Dorgan did not know how to spell dachshund, so he wrote, ‘Get your hot dog!’ The new name became a sensation.

Blue Jeans came to America with the Gold Rush. A young immigrant from Germany Levi Strauss arrived in San Francisco in 1850. Thousands of men were coming to dig for gold. Levi Strauss sold canvas to the gold miners for tents. The mines needed strong pants for the work. Strauss got an idea and got his canvas into pants. In one day he sold all the pants he had made. The fabric had no colour and the pants got dirty easily. Strauss dyed the fabric blue. Today the company he started is known around the world.

Chewing gum has a long tradition. In Mexico, Indians have long chewed chicle, the gum resin. In 1850 Mexico and the U.S. fought a war over Texas. General Lopez led Mexican soldiers. When Mexico lost the war General Lopez went to live in New York and took with him a lot of chicle. An American inventor, Thomas Adams, bought some chicle from Lopez. In 1871 he made gum balls. They were a great success. During the WWI and WWII American soldiers were given chewing gum to keep them from getting thirsty. So chewing gum became popular around the world.

Telephone was invented by Alexander Bell who immigrated to America in 1870. He taught in a school for the deaf. There he experimented with a machine to help the deaf hear. While the experimenting Bell got an idea of a telephone. For years Bell and his assistant, Thomas Watson, worked day and night. They tried to send speech through a wire. Finally, on March 9, 1876, Watson heard: ‘Mr. Watson, come here!’ He rushed upstairs into Bell’s room and shouted, ‘I hear you!’ nobody knew how telephone would change people’s lives.

Coca-Cola was invented by a druggist John Pemberton of Atlanta, Georgia in 1886. He made brown syrup mixing coca leaves with coca nuts. He called it “CocaCola” and sold the mixture as a medicine to all problems. Few people bought Coca-Cola and he sold it to another druggist, Asa Candler. Candler sold Coca-Cola as a soda fountain drink. Soon everyone was going to soda fountains to drink lionaires. Coca leaves were no longer used in Coca-Cola. The exact ingredients are not known-the

Company keeps its secret. Coca-Cola became very popular with the soldiers and the company started 10 factories in Europe. Today, there are Coca-Cola factories around the world.

The Apple Computer was invented by Steve Wozniak (1950) and Steven Jobs. They dreamt of a personal computer that could do more than play games. From this dream, the Apple Computer Company started in a family garage. In 1977 Jobs and Wozniak sold their first Apple II, which launched the personal computer industry.

Barbie is not just a doll. It is a diminutive doppelganger of Barbara Handler Segal, a Los Angeles woman and the daughter of Ruth and Elliot Handler, creators of Barbie. Ruth watched her daughter play her paper dolls, which were more maturelooking than their plastic counterpart and came with extensive cutout wardrobes. Ruth decided that girls needed a doll that looked like a teenager and wore stylish clothes. Barbara’s brother Ken became a miniature counterpart of Barbie in 1961. Barbie made him a millionaire several times. About 700 million of the dolls have been sold.

LIVING IN THE USA

The United States has always prided itself on being a “melting pot”, a changing, developing heterogeneous society. U.S. society has traditionally stressed individuality. In the U.S. there are as many exceptions as there are rules. One hard rule is: “Expect the unexpected”.

Americans tend to guard their personal space. Generally people stand 61cm apart. People in the U.S. shake hands when they are first introduced. Touching the elbow or kissing the hand are considered too intimate. Americans are friendly. Strangers may smile to you and say ‘hello’ or ‘how are you?’ They may not say ‘good-bye ‘or ‘thanks’ in rushing. People in the USA also tend to be informal. They use a lot of slang. There are also differences in American and British English.

People wear different types of clothing in different situations. Students often wear informal clothing, professors dress in more formal, yet comfortable clothing.

Americans consider themselves individuals. They value independence and selfreliance. Children are encouraged to think and do on their own. Directness is a desirable trait in the US. People often respond to questions in a frank manner. They tend to value personal achievements. This lends to the competitive nature of US society. Some people take great pride in their possessions as measures of their success. They value time, so they are often rushing around that creates a very rapid pace of life.

CANADIAN WAYS

Canada shares with the USA a large vocabulary. But prestige of British English has exerted strong influence on Canadian speech and habits. In the speech there is British colouring. Canadian speech patterns are neither British nor American. They have many Canadianisms. Many of them are loans from French, Eskimo and Indian. Hundred of Canadian words fall into the category of animal and plant names: Canada goose, snow apple. In pronunciation Canadians have much in common with British and Americans, some words are pronounced in a way that is typically Canadian.

The native people Inuits /Eskimo/ survived incredibly cold winter in the igloosdwellings in the shape of dome built of blocks of snow. They hunted for food with

simple sticks and travelled on toboggans. Now most of them live in normal houses and travel on snowmobiles.

The Hurons, like many native people of other tribes were addicted to gambling. The Hurons used all the magic they knew to win the game.

Ottawa is a capital of Canada. In 1826 British troops formed the first settlement in this area. Ottawa was not only a political compromise but it also lay a more secure distance from the American border. Population of Ottawa is about 5,000,000. 85% of people of Ottawa were born in Canada. The rest emigrated from Western Europe or the U.S. English is the main language of most Ottawans. A number of people speak both English and French.

Toronto is the second largest city of Canada and capital of Ontario. Its population is about 2 million. Toronto is a big port on Lake Ontario. The places of interest in Toronto include Casa Loma, The CN Tower, the Sky Dome and Ontario Place.

Montreal is the largest city in Canada. Its population is 1,200,000. It was founded in 1642 as a French city. Situated on wooded Montreal Island in the St. Lawrence it is the chief port of Canada.

TORONTO

TORONTO is an exciting city with a lot of sights to see and places to go. It is full of contrasts - the soaring glass and concrete towers is commercial and financial heart of Canada and the parks and the gardens of "village-style' communities. The many virtues you have heard about Toronto are true: it is clean, it is safe and it is one of the world's greenest cities.

Toronto is one of the most cosmopolitan centres on the globe. Everyone who visits Toronto comes away with something different to say and it's no wonder.

The city has such a potpourri of treasures, pleasures and wonderful ways to pass the time. However, there is one thing one can't but agree o n . . . Toronto is a very special place.

Toronto's history begins back in the 1700's when the French and Iroquoian nations established this location as an important port of trade, commerce and transportation. Unlike some cities of modern distinction, Toronto embraces its part by preserving its historical heritage.

Massive steel and glass skyscrapers dominate Toronto's downtown areas such as University Avenue, Bloor Street, and world renowned Bay Street which is home to the second largest Stock Exchange in North America.

Every day Toronto continues to grow with new and more fascinating buildings springing up everywhere. Without a doubt one of the most spectacular landmarks in the world has to be Toronto's CN Tower. It has been said that every visitor should start sight-seeing here. The reason is simple. In addition to being a breathtaking sight in itself, the tower offers a dazzling 360 degree view of the city that you just won't find anywhere else.

Opened in 1976, the CN Tower is much more than just a huge monument; it is a communication tower, a revolving restaurant, a nightclub, a long elevator ride and the world's tallest freestanding structure at 1815 feet, making it almost twice as tall as the Eiffel Tower.

On a clear day, you can see the spray of Niagara Falls from the tower's observation deck. One of the more recent additions to Toronto's already captivating skyline is the Sky Dome. It is the first major sports stadium to be topped by a fully retractable roof. Sky Dome has become a major Toronto's concert venue and home to baseball and football team of Toronto.

In the summertime Toronto is a pretty place to be. Canada's Wonderland is an amusement park which is filled with rides, displays, concerts, shows.

Canadian Nation Exhibition (EX as it is more commonly called) is a sentimental part of summer in the city. It is in fact, the world's largest outdoor fair right in the heart of Toronto. When the cool northern breezes start lofting into the city, it's high time to discover Toronto from indoors.

UKRAINIANS IN CANADA

Over 1 million Ukrainians live in Canada. Desperate needs and life conditions in their Homeland made them look for their happiness over oceans and seas.

Ivan Pylypiv and Vasyl Eleniak are considered to be trailblazers of Ukrainian immigration. They arrived in Canada on the ship “Oregon” in September 1891. Both were 33 years of age when they came there from the Carpathian village of Nebyliv. In the next 25 years 250.000 of their countrymen followed them. Today their children live in peace, liberty and prosperity.

In 1991 a centenary of Ukrainian immigration to Canada was celebrated. Ramon John Hnatyshyn, Governor-general of Canada, a Ukrainian by birth from Chernivtsi, said in his speech: ’Ukrainians were indispensable to the economic growth of Canada!’

Most of the overseas Ukrainians no longer speak Ukrainian, but they still warship in their own churches and are aware of their origin. They are believed to be thrifty, enterprising, hardworking and conscientious. They are quick to attain a decent standard of living.

Ukrainian writing in Canada began in the first major wave of Ukrainians.

The first period of Ukrainian writing, 1897-1920 was permeated with folklore.

In the second period, 1920-50, the Ukrainian writing in Canada broadened thematically and became more artistic. In prose fiction, Illia Kyriak /Ellias Kiriak/ distinguished himself with his realistic trilogy ‘Syny Zemli’. It was translated and abridged as ‘Sons of the Soil’ in 1959. The trilogy shows a panorama of the life of settlers on the prairies.

The third period opened with the arrival of immigrants after WWII. In contrast to a previous realism, there appeared various literary trends and styles, including modernism.

Since the 1960 there has been a revival in Ukrainian literature in Canada. Ukrainian authors in Canada formed their own literary society, which has

published 8 volumes of the almanac ‘Slovo’ /1970-87/ and ‘Antolohiia ukrainskoi poezii v Kanadi, 1889-1973‘ in 1975.

The Ukrainian Academy of Arts and Sciences in Canada and the Shevchenko Scientific society have regularly published their proceedings and other scholarly books.

Despite the great variety of themes and significant ideas in Ukrainian writing, there are only some 15 Ukrainian Canadian authors whose artistic accomplishments place their literature on a level equal to that in Ukraine or higher.

AUSTRALIA. LAND AND PEOPLE

Australia is the 6th largest country in the world. Its territory is 7.686.850 sq km. It is the only country that occupies a complete continent. The capital of the country is Canberra. The population of Australia is about 18.000.000.

There are 6 states and 2 territories. A long chain of mountains, the Great Dividing Range, runs along the Pacific Ocean. Mt. Kosciusko is the highest peak of Australia. It is also the driest continent in the world. About one third of the land is desert. Australia has 4 main deserts. The Great Barrier Reef is a garden under the sea. It has 400 species of corals. Rivers (the Darling River, the Murray) fill with water only during the rainy season. The largest lakes are Lake Eyre and Lake Torrents.

Australia is known for its marsupials, including koalas, kangaroos, spiny anteaters and the platypus. Native birds include the world’s only black swans, the emus and the cassowary. The platypus and the echidna are among the strangest Australian animals. They are the only animals that hatch their young from eggs.

Australia has many national parks, where wild life is protected. Kakadu national Park is Australia’s largest national park. In the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park 1500 species of fish live.

Large cities are Sydney and Melbourne, Perth, Brisbane, Canberra, Adelaide and Darwin.

Canberra is a federal capital of Australia. It is also an administrative centre of New South Wales. Its population is 280.000. The city is situated in a wide valley, scattered wit gum trees on the both sides of the dark blue Lake Burley Griffin. The Molingo River flows through Canberra.

Sydney is the chief city and port of Australia. Population of Sydney is 305 million people. The city covers 4.700 sq. miles. Sydney is gateway to Australia. It is also the oldest Australian city. Captain Cook stopped at Botany Bay in 1770. Sydney received its first shiploads of convicts, 750 men and women on January 26, 1788.

Sydney has one of the most spectacular harbours in the world where snow white yachts sail lazily under the Sydney Harbour Bridge. The famous Sydney opera House looks like sails or waves when they break on the beach. It is set like a diamond against the blue waters.

Perth is a capital and commercial centre of Western Australia. Its population is over 500.000. It lies on the Swan River. Perth is a sunny and cozy city. The city grew rapidly after settlers discovered gold. In King’s Park you can see lazy curves of the Swan River dotted with Black swans the specie native only to Australia.

Melbourne is the capital of Victoria. Its area is 714 sq. miles and population is over 3 million. It is a multi-cultural city. It is home to many cultural groups speaking 170 languages. Melbourne is the Culture Capital of Australia. The Melbourne Zoo is the oldest in the world. The city is also a seaport and a trading centre of wool and livestock.

PEOPLE AND CULTURE

Population of Australia is about 18.000.000. 85% of the people live in the urban areas. 40% of Australians live in Sydney and Melbourne.

Australia has a young population. 95% of the people are Caucasian. 60% of these have Anglo-Celtic heritage. Because of immigration Australia is a mosaic of many nationalities.

There are 257.000 full and part aborigines. Their culture is recognized as an integral part of Australia’s heritage.

English is the national language and is taught in all schools. Australian English uses many words that are expressions of Australia’s unique culture. Some Australian slang may be offensive to other English speakers. Australian accent looks like English Cockney.

Public education is administered by state governments and financed by federal funds. Each state and territory makes its own laws about education. 25% of all Australian children attend private schools. The school year is divided into 4 terms of 10 weeks each. The Christmas holidays begin the summer vacations.

The literacy rate is 99%. Most Australians completed 11 years of schooling. All states have universities, colleges and institutes. There 33 Universities, 3 of them are private. Many of Australians have completed some higher education.

76% of the people are Christians, but religion doesn’t play a great role in their daily life.

The Aborigines had highly developed artistic traditions. They adopted some European technique and painted scenes of the Australian desert. The Australian Natural Gallery in Canberra houses the country’s natural art collection.

Australia has a National Opera Company and the Australian Ballet. Each state capital has a company of professional actors. They stage classic and modern plays. In recent years Australian film industry has been great success.

The most popular sports in Australia are cricket, football and soccer, swimming, surfing.

ABORIGINES

Aborigines came to Australia over 40.000 years ago by sea or a land bridge. Aborigines keep track of their past through folklore. They believe in Dreamingthey guard and honour spirits created the land and life. The main job of aborigines was to find food. They all are expert hunters and food finders. They never over-pick fruits and vegetables and leave some to grow for the next year. All their weapons were made of wood and rock.

They did not build houses because they were constantly moving to new places of hunting. They did not wear clothes because it was hot. They became experts in finding water in the desert. They knew how to dig to find water in bodies of frogs, in hollow logs and in roots. After a hunt Aborigines shared equally with everyone. Today there are few true Aborigines left. They work in cities and on large sheep stations.

The Aborigines spoke more than 250 languages; only 50 of them have survived. Many people speak Aboriginal English. Some Aboriginal words entered English: kangaroo, boomerang.

Aboriginal art began with simple symbols. Concentric circles could mean a camp site, a tree or meeting place. For thousands of years, aboriginal tribes have created elaborate sand and body painting using sand, ochres, blood and feathers for ceremonies.

AUSTRALIAN WAYS

Australia is a clean country. There is a stiff fine for littering. Australians are friendly and easy-going. Many people frequent local pubs. Being prompt is important. When conversing, Australians often gesture. Australians are outgoing and relaxed in public. They express feelings openly.

Australians greet friends with G’Day and a warm handshake. Close female friends may hug and kiss on the right cheek. People prefer to use first names. From distance, a wave is a greeting.

There are strong rules of basic etiquette in Australia. Winking at women is considered inappropriate. Pointing at someone with the index finger is impolite. One points with an open hand.

Australians enjoy visiting others to dinner. One popular reason for getting together is the barbecue. When invited by friends, people offer to bring something to the meal. The hosts may accept or decline the offer.

The food in Australia is a result of a great diversity of cultures. Australians eat in the continental style: the fork is in the left and the knife is in the right hand. Beef is the most popular meat. Australians prefer plain, not spicy meal. Crocodile Bread is bread with bacon, green peppers and cheese and looks like crocodile when it is made. Sausage Rolls soup is rather popular. Tea is a favourite hot drink in Australia. Coffee comes second. A favourite dessert was created by Western Australian chef Bert Sachse in honour of ballerina Anna Pavlova. The pavlova shell or ‘pav’, rich with whipped cream and ice-cream, is a wonderful dessert which should appeal to anyone with a sweet tooth. One distinctive of restaurant in Australia is the BYOBring Your Own. The BYO restaurant allows you to bring your own bottle of wine, and the waiter will open it and serve it for you.

The average family has 2 or 3 children. Society is family oriented. Teenagers are rather independent. Home is valued highly and is a part of the Australian Dream. The average age for marriage is about 34; church weddings are still common.

NEW ZEALAND. LAND AND PEOPLE

New Zealand is an island country, 1000 miles of Australia. It covers 286.680 sq km. the original name of NZ is Aotearoa /land of the Long Cloud/. This mountainous island nation lies in the South Pacific about 1600 km southeast of Australia. NZ has hundreds of waterfalls. The two principal land forms are North Island and South Island. Stewart Island and Chatham Islands are far to the east. Small islands are uninhabited.

The climate is temperate, with plenty of sunshine and adequate rainfall. The country is well watered. The seasons are opposite those in the Southern Hemisphere.

Animals have been introduced from other countries. Two species of bats are the only native land mammals. NZ has no snakes. Native birds are kakapo parrot, kiwi, takahe and weka.

The capital of New Zealand is Wellington. Its population is 325.00.british settlers founded Wellington in 1840. Wellington is also a port and manufacture centre.

A private car is preferred mode of transportation. In NZ they drive on the left. All major cities have good bus systems. Trains and a domestic airline also operate between cities. Ferries carry people and cars between the two main islands.

New Zealand’s population is about 4 million. The Maori live on North Island.

In 1642, Dutch explorer A. Tasman sighted the islands and named them Staten Landt. Dutch geographers changed the island’s name into New Zealand after the Dutch province of Zeeland.

British Captain Cook visited Maori in 1769 and opened the door to European settlement. The British monarch granted the Maori legal protection. Colonization proceeded rapidly after 1840. The Maori population declined. In 1852, British granted NZ self-government.

English and Maori are both official languages. 81% are Christians.

New Zealand is a constitutional monarchy within the Commonwealth. The British monarch is represented by a governor general.

NEW ZEALAND. CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS

New Zealanders are open, friendly and hospitable. Their life style is relaxed and informal. They are practical people. They enjoy working in their homes and gardens.

In NZ western-style clothing is the standard. People wear casual clothing in public. European fashions are popular, but NZ also has its own fashion industry. Maori wear traditional costumes for ceremonies and cultural events.

New Zealanders like to have friends over for dinner. Garden barbecues are especially popular on weekends. Dropping unannounced is quite common.

Many people like sports. Rugby and soccer are popular in winter. Cricket is a favourite sport in summer. There are many opportunities for mountaineering, tramping, fishing, hunting, swimming, jogging and sailing. The climate makes it possible in any season.

Official public holidays include New Year’s, Waitangi Day, and Easter, Queen Elizabeth’s Birthday, Labour Day, Christmas and Boxing Day.

New Zealand is a gardener’s paradise. A visitor’s first impression of this country is one of green. 800 New Zealand gardens are open to visitors. Pukeiti is a grand Kiwi passion for gardening.

New Zealanders greet with a handshake and Gidday. Maori may greet with a hug or a traditional hongi - pressing noses together with eyes clothed. Hello in Maori is ‘Tena korua’. In NZ waving at a friend is a sign of recognition. Young people like to raise both eyebrows in the direction of their friend. It is polite to avoid chewing gum in public. Personal space must be observed.

A traditional family has two parents and two children. It is common for both parents to work. Family ties are looser than they once were. Most families own their homes. Among Polynesians in some cases several generations live together in one house.

New Zealanders eat much butter and meat. Lamb is a favourite meal. Tea is the most popular drink and beer and wine are popular alcoholic beverages. In the NZ diet

seafood and fresh vegetables play a great role. Beef, pork, roast lamb and fish are common. Now people prefer hamburgers, pizza and chips. Yeast extract is used as a bread spread, but peanut butter, honey and jam are also popular. Fruit include apples, bananas, apricots, peaches, nectarines, plums, cherries and strawberries and tomatoes. New Zealanders believe that their cheeses and ice cream are the best in the world.

CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS

In Japan they usually invite guests home at weekends, in the early evening, about seven o’clock. Before the guests come, the hostess must tidy the front garden and clean the entrance hall. Then they must spray it all with water to show that they welcome guests with cleanliness. The guests usually bring presents and when they give this present to the host they say:’ I’m sorry this is such a small present’, but in fact they have chosen the present very carefully. When the meal is ready the hostess says, ‘We have nothing special for you today but you are welcome to come this way’. You can see that in Japan too should try to be modest and you should not show off too much. If you don’t understand their culture you will think this is very strange.

When they have foreign guests they try to serve traditional Japanese meals like sushi, tempura or sukiyaki but when they have Japanese guests they serve all kinds of food such as spaghetti, Chinese food, or steaks. When guests leave, the host and hostess see them out of the house and wait until their car turns the corner of the street; they wait until they can’t see them any more.

In Spain what they love most is going out to eat in bars and restaurants. There is a big choice and they can go from one bar to another trying different things and having a few drinks, usually wine or beer. But sometimes they also like to invite people in their homes.

Usually they invite guests for informal meal. They cook Spanish omelette, which is made with potatoes, onions and eggs, fried in olive oil. Then they have things like cheese, hamSpanish ham is very different from English ham, and if you buy the best one, called Jabugo, is something delicious, worth trying. And then things like olives, anchovies, mussels. They drink wine or beer. Some people may bring a bottle of wine or something for pudding. They usually meet late in the evening, about eight thirty or nine. Of course they dress casually; they just want to be relaxed and comfortable, and talk and laugh together.

OXFORD

Oxford was an important town even before the University came into existence. The University of Oxford may be said to date from 1214 when the first charter was granted by the Pope.

The college corporate institutions with special rules and privileges came into being during the Middle Ages, but at first only graduates were full members of them and it was not until the 16th century that all undergraduates were admitted to them.

The thirteenth and fourteenth centuries saw many quarrels between the students and the townsfolk. Subsequently the King gave his support to the University which gained considerable influence over the town and its trade.

The ground on which Oxford is built is actually a peninsula, bounded on the west and south by the Thames.

Academic life in Oxford is full and varied. Some of the occasions are solemn, some exciting. The three principal annual events are Commemoration Day, Congregation Day and Convocation Day.

Every college of the University has its own library, and many of them are very large and comprehensive. The principal museums of Oxford are the Ashmolean, and the University Museum.

Oxford is not only one of the oldest university cities of Great Britain, but a thriving industrial town as well.

CAMBRIDGE

Cambridge is situated at a distance of 70 miles from London; the greater part of the town lies on the left bank of the river Cam crossed by several bridges.

The oldest college is Peterhouse, which was founded in 1284. The most recent is Robinson College. The most famous is probably King’s, because of its magnificent chapel.

The University was exclusively for men until 1871 when the first women’s college was opened. In the1970s most colleges opened their doors both men and women. Almost all colleges are mixed now, but it will be many years before there are equal numbers of both sexes. Until today there are more than 20 colleges in Cambridge. Each college has its own building, its own internal organization, its own staff and students. In order to enter the University, one must first apply to a college and become a member of the University through the college. The colleges are not connected with any particular study. Students studying literature and those trained for physics may belong to one and the same college.

The college is governed by twenty or thirty “fellows”. Fellows of a college are tutors. Each tutor has 10-12 students reading under his guidance. Tutors teach their own subject to those students in the college who are studying it, and they are responsible for their progress.

Every college is governed by a dean. Discipline is looked after by proctors and numerous minor officials called “bulldogs”.

Students study at the University for four years, three terms a year. Long vocations last about three months.

“Your name and college, sir?”

There are over a million students in the British higher education. The government aims to have widened access to the point where 1 in 3 young people goes into higher education.

All Britain’s universities enjoy complete academic freedom. They appoint their own staff and decide what and how to teach. The tradition of excellence dates back to the Middle Ages when Oxford and Cambridge universities were founded. The rest of Britain’s 47 universities were set up in the last 200 years. The Open University is a little different, because it relies on distance-learning.

Oxford and Cambridge, thanks to their age, history and traditions, are the most famous British Universities. There are colleges for men and women. Examinations are few but important; for if the student does not pass any of them he is not given a second chance. There is an examination at the end of each year for the Degree of Bachelor of Arts /BA/ but only the final examination is taken into consideration. The final examinations are conducted by the university and not by the colleges.

The colleges of both universities are very beautiful. The most famous is the chapel of King’s College, Cambridge. Most of the colleges are built in the form of squares. A new student, or freshman, goes either to lodgings in the town or to his college where he has a sitting room and a separate bedroom. Most students spend two years in lodgings and one year in a college. The new student has to visit a tutor. He arranges with him what course of studies he will follow and lectures he will attend. The year is divided into three terms of 8 weeks each; the long vacations last from mid-June till mid-October. Of all the sports the most famous is rowing. They were invented in Oxford and Cambridge. Student traditions include wearing academic dress-cap and gown. There is a special official, the “Proctor”, whose duty is to see that this rule is obeyed. He is accompanied by two college servants, “bulldogs”. They run fast to catch the student. They take him to the Proctor who asks, ‘Your name and college, sir?’ The student must visit the Proctor later and pay the fine, called “angel”.

The University of London is the only university in Great Britain that has an External Degree for which students may present themselves without any qualifications of residence or attendance at lectures.

Education doesn’t stop with leaving school. Over 500 colleges of further education run courses on everything from catering to business studies. There are 500.000 full-time further education students and 4 million who attend college part-time. The New Vocational Qualifications are designed to ensure the relevance of vocational qualifications to employers.

AMERICAN UNIVERSITIES

The most prestigious universities are the oldest private universities like Harvard (founded in 1636), Yale (1701), Princeton (1746), Pennsylvania (1740) and some others. They are called Ivy League (from ivy climbing over the brick walls of the old university buildings). Private universities are generally smaller, and therefore, very competitive; tuition fees are much higher, and academic standards are also very high; the most famous professors teach at them, and the wealthiest students attend them. The quality of education is always better, and an Ivy League University diploma gives much better career opportunities. So, it’s worth all the money that goes into it. Americans believe that the more schooling you have the more money you will earn when you leave school.

State universities, unlike private colleges are partly subsidized by state governments, so the tuition is lower. They also bring in money for research being done at the university. On the whole, they are about the same as private universities: the same classes, similar faculties, roughly the same courses. Of course, the professors won’t be so famous, or the students so rich. Young people usually go to the university in the state they live, for they have to pay less in their own state and don’t have to compete, because

some public colleges and university accept nearly all applicants. However, many statesupported universities have very good reputations, and the best of them, like the University of California at Berkeley, or State University of New York (SUNY) are rather competitive, and have many students from other states and countries.

ENGINEERING AS A PROFESSION

Ask a number of people chosen at random what the word “engineering” conveys to them and you will be surprised at the differences in their answers. The question is difficult to clarify in a few words, and precise definitions are difficult to find. Perhaps an adequate starting point would be to claim that engineering is a profession concerned with the application of the resources of the universe to create devices, systems and structures to satisfy the needs of mankind. Further, many engineers are engaged in tasks not clearly identifiable with particular devices, systems or structures.

An easy way out is to let the existing curricula in engineering colleges around the country define the substance of engineering. The usual structure of engineering curricular includes four main components. First come the basis of physics, chemistry and mathematics. Then a block of humanities courses are required.

Engineering is often compared to medicine and law in discussions of professional status. It would appear to qualify according to the dictionary meaning of the word. Engineers require specialized knowledge and intensive preparation with continued study after leaving the university. The profession has a strong organizational structure, requires high standards, and operates in the public service. These attributes are commonly associated with the word professional as it is used here.

Most important is the fact that engineers see themselves as professionals. They have to be technically competent and operate with responsibility in conformity with accepted notions of professionalism.

The type of responsibility is rather different from that of a doctor. The doctor’s responsibility is clearly recognizable because of the directness of the doctor-patient relationship. For the engineer, the result of his labours-be it a bridge, air-conditioning unit, automobile or computeris interposed between him and the user. However, since people’s lives are often at stake if an error is made, a high level of competence is essential.

There is certain lack of distinctiveness about the engineering profession because of the very wide range of activities and individual backgrounds encompassed. The number of people involved is larger than in most other professional areas.

FASHION DESIGNERS

Haute couture had its beginnings in the mid-nineteenth century. Until that time dress-maker or tailor designers had controlled the design and production of ladies’ garments, creating one ensemble for one individual client. France and particularly Paris, was the source for haute couture. In French, the word “couture” means sewing: a “couturier” is a male tailor or dressmaker. In haute couture, models are created by the designer, bear his or her name and are protected by copyright from reproduction. An