A: What problem are you going to speak on?

C: This year I’ll present and describe the problem of natural materials in footwear and accessories producing.

A: Is it an annual conference?

C: As far as I know, it is held every year but in different places.

to speak on the problem – доповідати по питанню annual conference – щорічна конференція

2. Speak on the following situations:

1.You are a representative of the Ukrainian footwear factory. Make up a presentation of your stand.

2.You are a member of the Organizing Committee. You have to inform the participants about the schedule of the conference.

3.You have attended the fair. Give your opinion of some sections.

V Rendering.

1. Read the text and translate it using a dictionary:

On the importance of the conference

Needless to say that conferences are professionally important. They allow researchers to meet in friendly and relaxed atmosphere to discuss the latest developments in areas of their particular interest. Here they can exchange their views and ideas and find potential partners for future collaboration and common projects. Conferences give the opportunity to interact with famous scientists, learn about the latest advances in fundamental and innovative areas.

Potential participants receive announcements or circulars with the information on registration, programme, short courses, expositions, housing, etc. They are asked to send back a conference registration form with the indication of a participant's last and first a name, an organization name, the name of academic institution, an address, a telephone number, email, registration fee, selected area of scientific interest, type and the name of the presentation (lecture, communication, poster).

All conferences should strictly follow instructions. Time needed for the presentation should also be indicated.

Conferences also provide an efficient means for establishing a personal network of individuals who can be helpful professionally: people who know how to do things to mutual interest or who have useful information. Conferences serve different purposes than does a printed word. At conferences one can observe intellectual creativity in action. Many people feel that conferences are intellectually much more stimulating than the formal papers.

Even listening to a discussion of a familiar subject can be educational. When the subject is familiar, the listener concentrates on the development of the material.

A full programme of social events allows participants to take advantage of these international meetings.

2.Make up a plan of the text in the form of questions.

3.Give the summary of the text according to your plan in a written form.

VI Comprehensive Skills.

1.Read and remember:

1.in collaboration with – в співробітництві з

2.comprehensive – зрозумілий

3.weaving machine – ткацький верстат

4.lining machine – машина для пришиву підкладки

5.knitting machine – в'язальний станок

6.bleaching machine – станок для відбілювання

7.dyeing machine – станок для фарбування

8.pressing machine – прес

9.starching machine – машина для підкрохмалювання

2.Listen to the text ‘BITME’ and try to understand it:

3.True or false statements:

1.BITME specializes in electronic equipment and hardware.

2.The exhibition will be hosted by Textile spring.

3.The domain represented by this exhibition presents a series of peculiarities in textile industry.

4.BITME approaches a comprehensive theme that covers some steps of the technological process.

5.The 9th edition of this event will unfold in June.

4.Listen to the text once again and answer the following questions:

1.What does BITME specialize in?

2.When is it going to take place?

3.Who (what) does it cooperate with?

4.What themes does it cover?

5.What machines were mentioned in the text? Name at least five of them.

Direct and Reported Speech

Для того щоб передати, що хтось сказав щось, можливо вживати "пряму мову" обо "непряму мову".

1. Коли дієслово в повідомленні або в словах автора вжито в теперішньому часі, дієслово не змінюється.

2. Але коли дієслово в повідомленні вжито в одному з минулих часів, час дієслова в непрямій мові змінюється.

Direct Speech: Annie said: "I usually visit exhibitions and fairs" Indirect Speech: Annie said (that) she usually visited exhibitions and fairs.

Дієслово в непрямій мові змінюється відповідно "Правилу Узгодження часів" Коли дієслово в повідомленні вжито в Past Tense,час в непрямій мові звичайно "посувається назад".

1. Дієслова в Present Tense змінюється на форму Past Tense:

4. Дієслова в Past Perfect не змінюються:

"I had visited this section before" My friend said that he had visited that section before.

5. Модальні дієслова змінюються таким чином:

В непрямій мові також змінюються прислівники часу та місця:

Часи дієслів, прикметники та займенники в непрямих питаннях змінюються таким самим чином, як і в непрямих твердженнях. В непрямих питаннях порядок слів такий, як і в простому реченні. Допоміжні дієслова не вживаються.

UNIT 14

Topic: New Technologies

Grammar: Conditionals

I Phonetic skills.

1. Listen and repeat:

належати до числа неавтономний

провайдер послуг доступу в Інтернет передавати спілкуватися кіберпростір цілий, увесь область, сфера

волоконно-оптична лінія Міністерство оборони головний комп’ютер

комутаторний/розподільчий зв’язок швидка обробка великої кількості чисел за допомогою комп’ютера

2. Read and translate the following text.

What is the Internet?

The best way to think of the Internet, or Net as it is often called, is as a vast global network of networks connecting computers across the world. These networks range from government departments and industrial and educational communication systems down to the personal on-line service providers.

At present, more than 33 million people use the Internet and over three million computers worldwide are linked in. Most of the Internet host computers (more than 50%) are in the USA; while the rest are located in more than 100 other countries. Although the number of host computers can be counted fairly accurately, nobody knows exactly how many people use the Internet, there are millions and their number is growing. According to some statistics, users on the Net are growing at the rate of one million new users per month! They use the Net for transferring data, playing games, socializing with other computer users, and sending e-mail (electronic mail). The most popular Internet service is e-mail. Most of the people, who have access to the Internet, use the network only for sending and receiving e-mail messages. However, other popular services are available on the Internet: reading USENET News, using the World Wide Web, telnet, etc. Information sent over the Internet takes the shortest path available from one computer to another. Because of this, any two computers on the Internet will be able to stay in touch with each other as long as there is a single route between them. This technology is called packet switching. Owing to this technology, if some computers on the network are knocked out (by a nuclear explosion, for example) information will just route around them.

Cyberspace is the term we give to this entire domain. Whenever you are using one of the on-line services such as e-mail or the World Wide Web, you are in cyberspace.

Despite the confusing techno-jargon that surrounds it, the Internet is simple: computers talk to one another through a network that uses phone lines, cables, and fibreoptic lines.

The Net was dreamt up in the late 1960s by the US Defense Department’s Research Agency which decided that, in the event of a nuclear attack, it needed a means by which messages could be sent and received even if phone lines were inoperative. In 1969, there was a network of just four main frame computers. By 1972, the number of frame computers had risen to 40. About this time the idea of the electronic mailbox was born, as users looked for a way of talking to each other electronically. By 1984 when the resources of the network were made available to scientists, the Internet began to develop into the form we know it today.

3.Find the answers to the questions:

1.What is the Internet?

2.What is cyberspace?

3.When was the Internet invented?

4.What purposes is the Internet used for?

5.What transferring information technology is used?

6.What is the most popular Internet service?

4.Match the words:

5.Translate into English:

1.Інтернет – це глобальна сітка, що налічує (embrace) мільйони користувачів по всьому світу.

2.Інформація, що посилається по Інтернету, прямує від одного комп’ютера до іншого найкоротшим допустимим шляхом.

3.Ніхто не знає напевно, скільки людей використовують Інтернет.

4.Вони використовують Інтернет для передачі данних.

5.Інтернет був створений наприкінці 60-х дослідницькою агенцією Міністерства оборони Сполучених Штатів Америки.

III Grammar skills.

1.Choose an appropriate form “if” or “when”:

1.______ you use e-mail or the World Wide Web, you are in cyberspace.

2.______ you subscribe to the services of an Internet Service Provider (ISP), you’ll get connected to this network.

3.______ I use the Internet, I usually read some newspapers.

4.______ I use the Internet for my personal needs, my boss gets very angry. That’s why I don’t do it during my working time.

5.His computer is very reliable. It hardly ever troubles him. But ______ it breaks down, he calls the computer club.

6.Her PC is terrible! It always makes a lot of trouble. ______ it breaks down, she calls the computer club.

2.Put the verb into correct form Present Real or Present Unreal Conditional:

Michael: Sharon, I am having some problems at work, and I was wondering if you

might be able to give me some advice. Sharon: Sure, what’s the problem?

Michael: The computer sales business is more difficult than I thought. When customers (come) _______ in to look at the new computer models, they often (ask)

_____ me which model they should buy. If they (ask) ______ me to suggest a model, I (be) ______ usually quite honest with them. Most computer users don’t need a very advanced computer; they just need a basic model which they can use for wordprocessing, bookkeeping and Internet access. If I am honest and I (recommend) ______ one of the cheaper models, my boss (get) _____ angry at me. He always says that a good salesperson can convince a customer to buy one of the more expensive advanced models. I don’t really feel comfortable about doing that. What would you do in my situation? Isn’t it wrong to make them buy something they don’t need?

Sharon: I think you should help your customers make an intelligent decision. If I (be) ____ you, I (educate) _____ the customers. I (teach) _____ them how to make a good decision by themselves. I (make, not) ______ the decision for them. When a customer (ask) ______ a question, answer it honestly. You don’t need to lie to the customer, and you don’t need to make the decision for them.

Michael: When I (sell) _____ an inexpensive computer, my boss (complain)

_____ that I am not trying hard enough. What would you tell him?

Sharon: If I (be) ______ in your situation, I (tell) _____ him that I wasn’t comfortable forcing customers to buy products which they don’t need. Tell him that you don’t want to lie to honest people, and that you want to provide them with good service. Remind him that when customers (get) _____ good service, they (return) _____ to a store and spend more money.

Michael: I think that’s a great idea. I (feel) _____ much more comfortable if I (be) _____ honest with the customers. And if I (explain) all the reasons to my boss, maybe he (realize) ____ that good service is the most important thing for customers.

3. Transform the sentences using conditionals:

Example: He didn’t go to the USA because he didn’t have money. If he had had money, he would have gone to the USA.

1.He doesn’t have the Internet because he doesn’t have a telephone at home.

2.Sometimes I have time and play computer games.

3.They are not here that’s why they can’t help us.

4.I am not in your situation that’s why I can’t change anything.

5.She didn’t know his e-mail address that’s why she couldn’t get in touch with him.

4.Complete the sentences in your own way using conditionals:

1.If I had invented the Internet,

2.If my computer is knocked out,

3.When I am on-line,

4.If I have some free time,

5.If I were Bill Gates,

5.Translate into English:

1.Якщо хтось зателефонує мені, коли мене не буде в офісі, скажіть йому, що я повернуся о четверті.

2.Якщо Саймон не вибачиться передi мною, я бiльше не балакатиму з ним.

3.Якби я знав адресу Алана, я надiслав би йому повідомлення.

4.На вашому мiсцi я б подав заяву на нову посаду.

5.Якби у школi я був бiльш уважнiшим на уроках з iнформатики, я б не мав проблем у вузі з цього предмета.

6.Якби я вміла користуватися Iнтepнeтoм, я би не витрачала так багато часу на пошук необхiдної iнформації.

7.Джон купив би нове комп'ютерне устаткування, якби вiн отримав грант.

8.Тато завжди допомагав мeнi з домашнiм завданням, коли в нього був вiльний час. Зараз, нажаль, вiн дуже зайнятий.

9.Що б ви зробили, якби ви виграли купу грошей? – Я би подорожував.

10. Якщо у тебе буде доступ до Інтернет, напиши Джону повідомлення на його поштову скриньку!

IV Communicative skills.

1. Read the dialogues and reproduce them:

1)

A:ING Barings Bank. Can I help you?

B:Could I speak to Mr. Jones, please?

A:Who is calling?

B:This is Belov from IP Electronics calling.

A:Hold the line, please. I’ll put you through. I’m sorry, Mr. Belov, but there is no reply. Mr. Jones must be out for lunch. Can I take a message for him?

B:No, thanks. I’ll call back later.

Can I help you? – Чим можу вам допомогти?

Hold the line. – Залишайтесь на лінії./ Не кладіть слухавку.

I’ll put you through. – Я вас з’єднаю.

I’ll call back later. – Я зателефоную пізніше.

2)

A:Good morning, Oriental Hotel, Bangkok. Can I help you?

B:Hello. Could I speak to General Manager, please?

A:I’m afraid he’s not here at the moment. Can I take a message?

B:Yes, please. My name is Mr. Lopez, Robert Lopez. Could you ask him to call me after 3 p.m. today?

A:Certainly, Mr. Lopez. Could I have your number?

B:Yes, it’s 247 10 33.

A: Thank you. I’ll give him the message.

Could you ask him to call me – Чи не могли б Ви передати, щоб він передзвонив мені

Could I have your number? – Залиште, будь-ласка, мені свій номер телефону. I’ll give him the message. – Я передам йому повідомлення.

3)

A:Operator. Can I help you?

B:Hello. This is a collect call, Operator.

A:What’s your name?

B:Joan Sinewski.

A:Could you spell that, please?

B:S-I-N-E-W-S-K-I

A:Just a moment, please.

B:Thank you.

a collect call (Am.) = a reverse charge call (Br.) телефонна розмова за рахунок абонента, що приймає виклик

Could you spell that, please? – Назвіть, будь-ласка, по буквах.

4)

A:Oriental Hotel Receptionist. Can I help you?

B:This is room 444. Klimenko’s speaking. Can I dial direct to Germany?

A:Sorry, Mr. Klimenko, but you can’t. I’ll connect you with The Trunk Exchange.

C:The Long Distance Telephone Service. Can I help you?

B:Yes, please. I need to make a trunk-call to Germany.

C:What’s the number?

B:It’s 968 36 27.

C:What’s the area code?

B:I don’t know the area code. But it’s Hamburg.

C:Just a moment. I’ll put you through. Sorry, but the line is engaged.

Can you hold on?

B: No, thanks. I’ll try again later.

Can I dial direct to Germany? – Чи можна зателефонувати з цього телефону до Німеччини.

I’ll connect you with – Я вас з’єднаю з

The Trunk Exchange (Br.) = The Long Distance Telephone Service (Am.) –

Міжнародна телефонна станція the area code – код міста

The line is engaged. – Номер зайнятий.

Can you hold on? – Чи можете Ви зачекати?

5)

S: Could I speak to Mr. Koval in Marketing Department? This is Salvatore Santini from the Italian Design.

A: I’m afraid he’s having negotiations at the moment. Can I take a message?

S: Yes, please. Tell him to call me at the Italian Design regarding his exposition in Milan.

A: Could I have your number?

S: He’s got it, but just in case. It’s 234 65 77.

A: Sorry, but there are some obstacles. Is that two-three-four-six-five-double seven? S: Yes, that’s right.

A: Thank you, Mr. Santini. I’ll give him the message. He’ll return your call. S: Thank you, good bye.

He’s having negotiations at the moment. – Саме зараз у нього переговори. regarding – стосовно

just in case – про всяк випадок

There are some obstacles. – Перешкоди на лінії. He’ll return your call. – Він Вам передзвонить.

2. Arrange the utterances from the conversations in the logical order: a)

∙She’s got it, but just in case.

∙Yes, could you ask her to call me?

∙Mr. Gottman here. Could I speak to Mrs. Fields?

∙Yes, of course. Could I have your number?

∙I’m afraid she’s out at the moment. Can I take a message?

b)

∙Could I speak to Mr. Harsch?

∙I’ll put you through.

∙Who’s calling?

∙Fleming, Rick Fleming.

∙American Express. Can I help you?

∙Just a moment, Mr. Fleming.

3.What do you say or hear, when:

1.you want to speak to someone;

2.you want to leave a message;

3.the line is busy;

4.you are going to be connected;

5.a receptionist wants you to leave your number?

4.Translate into English:

1.Чи можу я поговорити з Джоном Кінгом?

2.Не кладіть слухавку. Я Вас з’єднаю.

3.Містера Уілсона зараз немає. Що йому передати? – Скажіть йому, щоб він мені подзвонив, коли прийде.

4.Чи можу я зробити міжміський дзвінок звідси, з готелю?

5.Make your own dialogue using the phrases below:

Hello. Could I speak to …? Who’s calling? I’ll put you through. The line is engaged. Could I take a message? Could I have your number?

VRendering.

1.Read the text and translate it using a dictionary.

Invention of the Telephone

"Mr. Watson, соmе here, please; I want уоu". With these commonplace words а new erа was ushered in. That sentence marked the achievement of а mаn who changed the face of the world in his lifetime. For the speaker was Alexander Graham Bеll, and the sentence was the first to bе spoken over the telephone.

Alexander Веll was bоrn оn March 3, 1847 in Edinburgh. His genius was inherited from his father, who was а famous teacher of elocution, and an expert оn phonetics. Еvеn as а bоy his mind was inventive but in 1870 Bell's health began to fall

and there were fears of consumption. So with his father he left his native country and went to Canada. Two years later he was in Boston where he set up а school for training teachers of the deaf and he also gave instruction in the mechanics of speech. Here he started experimenting оn а mаchinе which he believed would make the dеaf "hear". Не had bееn doing this for some time when accidentally came across the clue for the correct principles of telephony.

Веll and his assistant, Watson, hid themselves in two rooms of а cheap Boston boarding house and worked day and night trying to transmit and receive sentences spoken bу the human voice оvеr the telephone. Оn the afternoon of March 10, 1876, Watson was in the basement with the receiver to his еаr. Suddenly he started. Words - rеаl distinguishable words - had соmе through at last. Sharply and clearly the sentence саmе through, "Mr. Watson, соmе here, please; I want уоu".

Watson rushed up the stairs like а schoolboy and burst into Bell's room, shоuting, "I heard уоu; I could hear what уоu said!"

That уеаr Веll ехhibitеd his telephone at the Centennial Exposition at Philadelphia.

Веll soon withdrew from active work оn the telephone and settled down in а country home at Baddeck, Nova Scotia, and devoted himself to invention. Не interested himself in dynamic flight, sheep breeding and universal language based оn the phonetics of the English language. He perfected a hydroplane and claimed he had invented а breathing apparatus for explorers and travellers through the deserts. Although nothing has соmе of any of these inventions, work is still being carried out оn the telephone.

Inventors have bееn making experiments оn а telephone-television called Picturephone for some time. The equipment is а television screen, а television саmеrа and the usual telephone. Тhe саmеrа will bе аble to look at the аrеа of а roоm, оr а close-up of a person, оr focus оn papers on а desk оr wall. This picturephone should bе useful for business situations but possibly embarrassing for social occasions sometimes.

Years after Bell's invention, there is а story told of а woman whom he met at а social gathering. When she was introduced to the great inventor she expressed pleasure in meeting him and then said smilinglу, "But often I wish уоu had nеvеr bееn bоrn." Веll looked startled and hurt and then he smiled and said, "1 sympathize. I nеvеr use that beast myself."

Тhe most extraordinary thing is that Веll hated the telephone, he hardly еvеr used

it.

2.Make up a plan of the text in the form of questions.

3.Give a summary of the text according to your plan in a written form.

VI Comprehensive skills.

1.Read and remember:

1.intelligent – розумний

2.to dismiss – відхиляти, заперечувати

3.cable/wire – провід

4.mаrriаgе – зв’язок, шлюб

5.data transmission – передача даних

2.Listen to the text “Telecommunications” and try to understand it.

3.True or false sentences:

1.A machine cannot be as intelligent as a person.

2.Computers can talk to each other.

3.Computers can be linked by telephone.

4.Computers are not connected by cables nowadays.

5.Telegraph is new notion.

6.Alexander Graham Bell invented the first computer.

7.The marriage of telephone and computer technologies is new.

4.Answer the questions:

1.What does the term telecommunications mean?

2.What data may be used?

NOTE!

1. “IF” показує, що ми не впевнені, чи відбудеться дія. “WHEN” підкреслює типовість та регулярність дії.

2.В умовних реченнях the Present Unreal Conditional з усіма особами та числами вживається лише WERE!

UNIT 15

Topic: Environmental problems Grammar: 1. ’Wish’ / ‘If only’ sentences

2. Compound Sentences

2. Listen and remember the following phrases:

1.contamination of the environment – забруднення навколишнього середовища

2.waste products – відходи

3.to become evident – ставати явним, очевидним

4.to originate from – брати початок

5.high population density – густонаселенність

6.freshwater endowment – (тут) рівень прісної води

7.substantial fraction – значна частка

8.to follow the safety regulations – виконувати правила безпеки

9.power station – електростанція

10.to be sealed – бути ізольованим

II Reading skills.

1.Read and remember:

1.pollution – забруднення

2.landscape – ландшафт

3.development – розвиток

4.south-eastern – південно-східний

5.one-third – одна третина

6.health risk – ризик для здоров’я

7.emergency system – аварійна система

8.to explode – вибухати

9.to wash down – змивати

10.nuclear accident – ядерна катастрофа

2. Read and translate the following text:

The Problem of Pollution in Ukraine

1.The Greenhouse effect is the rise in temperature that the Earth experiences because certain gases in the atmosphere trap energy from the sun.

2.When you recycle, you send less trash to the landfill and help save natural resources, like trees, oil, etc.

3.Pollution has its origin in the Latin word ‘polluere’, means ‘contamination of any feature of the environment’.

4.Scientists suspect that in many places global warming will increase the number of very hot days that occur during the year.

5.Rainforests contributes to the water and carbon cycles on which all life depends.

5. Translate into English:

1.Шкода, що люди не піклуються про навколишнє середовище.

2.Сергій, ти що-небудь знаєш про забруднення навколишнього середовища у Великій Британії? – На жаль, ні. Якби тільки ти мені розповів, я був вдячний тобі.

3.З розвитком густонаселених промислових міст, у яких величезні кількості відходів викидалися на великі площі, проблема довкілля стала значно серйознішою.

4.Автомобілі забруднюють довкілля, але дають людям можливість пересуватися з комфортом.

2.Добрива й пестициди важливі для сільського господарства, проте вони можуть руйнувати ґрунт.

3.Шкода, що вчені та інженери не можуть знайти шляхи зменшення шкідливих викидів від автомобілів та фабрик.

4.Шкода, що Україну та її народ спіткала найжахливіша екологічна катастрофа – Чорнобильська трагедія.

5.Тропічні ліси – це справжні смарагди, які прикрашають наш світ рідкою красою та природними дивами.

6.Коли вчені говорять про глобальне потепління, вони мають на увазі середнє збільшення температури на землі, що в свою чергу приводить до змін у кліматі.

IV Communicative skills.

1. Read the dialogues and reproduce them:

1)

Interviewer: We have all seen posters by the Government urging us to plant trees. Aren’t there enough of them? How many trees do we need and does it matter which kinds we plant? There are some of the questions I am going to ask Mr Harold Godfrey who is an adviser on trees to the Greater London Council.

Godfrey: If only I could answer your first question. First, the Government’s plans are not concerned with planting trees to provide wood for industry. The trees we’re talking about are the trees for towns with no industrial purpose.

Interviewer: All of us agree, I’m sure, that trees are beautiful and make our towns more attractive. Do they help in any other ways?

Godfrey: Of course they do. One tree provides enough oxygen for one person. They reduce pollution and they even make towns less noisy.

to urge – примушувати

the Greater London Council – Лондонський муніципалітет to concern with – займатися чимось

2)

Interviewer: What do you think are the worst kinds of pollution?

Steve: The noise and the exhaust of cars. It should be compulsory to have filters on exhausts.

Julie: I think the noise of airports is much worse. I live on Battersea Bridge Road which is one of the noisiest roads and it doesn’t bother me. I don’t really notice it. Interviewer: What do you think of clearing city centres of traffic and cleaning the air of big cities? How could that be accomplished?

Steve: City centres should be left only for pedestrians and all traffic should be banned. As to the enterprises which pour smoke out of their chimneys they should be moved out. They endanger the health of people.

...it doesn’t bother me – це мене не хвилює

How could that be accomplished? – Як цього можна досягти? to ban – забороняти

chimney – димохід

V Rendering.

1. Read the text and translate it using a dictionary:

Ecological Problems

Since ancient times Nature has served Man, being the source of his life. For thousands of years people lived in harmony with environment and it seemed to them that natural riches were unlimited. But with the development of civilization man’s interference in nature began to increase.

Large cities with thousands of smoky industrial enterprises appear all over the world today. The by-products of their activity pollute the air we breathe, the water we drink, the land we grow grain and vegetables on.

Every year world industry pollutes the atmosphere with about 1 million tones of dust and other harmful substances. Many cities suffer from smog. Vast forests are cut and burnt in fire. Their disappearance upsets the oxygen balance. As a result some rare species of animals, birds, fish and plants disappear forever, a number of rivers and lakes dry up.

The pollution of air and the world’s ocean, destruction of the ozone layer is the result of man’s careless interaction with nature, a sign of the ecological crises.

Environment protection is of a universal concern. That is why serious measures to create a system of ecological security should be taken.

Some progress has been already made in this direction. As many as 159 countries

– members of the UNO – have set up environmental protection agencies. Numerous conferences have been held by these agencies to discuss problems facing ecologically poor regions including the Aral Sea, the South Urals, Kuzbass, Donbas and Chernobyl.

The international organisation Greenpeace is also doing much to preserve the environment.

But these are only the initial steps and they must be carried onward to protect nature, to save life on the planet not only for the sake of the present but also for the future generations.

If we continue to exploit the Earth in the way we have been doing, the planet will soon be destroyed. Do you agree?

2.Make up a plan of the text in the form of questions.

3.Give a summary of the text according to your plan in a written form.

VI Comprehensive skills.

1. Read and remember:

1.environmental protection – захист навколишнього середовища

2.acid rain – кислотний дощ

3.greenhouse effect – „тепличний ефект”

4.to damage the nature – завдавати шкоди природі

5.species – біол. вид

6.to threaten – загрожувати

7.to disappear – зникати

8.extinct – вимерлий, зниклий

9.to preserve – зберігати

10.unique properties – унікальні властивості

2.Listen to the text ‘Environmental Protection’ and try to understand it.

3.True or false statements:

1.People all over the world are worried about the nature.

2.Ecologists list only 50 species that disappeared from the planet.

3.In Hawaii almost all kinds of animals are unique.

4.We have to preserve plants because they are beautiful.

5.People themselves damage the nature a lot.

4. Listen to the text once more and answer the following questions:

1.Why is it dangerous to eat mushrooms from the woods or fish from the river?

2.How many extinct species do ecologists list?

3.On what islands are 95 per cent of the plants unique?

4.What are the reasons for protecting the nature?

‘Wish’ / ‘If only’ sentences

‘Wish’ або ‘If only’ виражає бажану дію або стан, що суперечить дійсності. ‘If only’ – є більш категоричним. Форма дієслова ‘to be’ у минулому часі має форму множини для всіх осіб (were).

Вимова в сучасній літературній англійській мові базується на нормах лондонського діалекту (Standard English).

За останні століття звукова система англійської мови зазнала значних змін. Написання слів в англійській мові ґрунтується на традиційному принципі. Особливостями англійської мови є те, що в ній відсутнє точне співвідношення між вимовою слова та його написанням. Це особливо відноситься до голосних звуків і букв. Тому знання системи звукових одиниць та їх буквеного вираження на письмі є запорукою успішного розвитку навичок правильного читання і письма англійською мовою.

В англійській мові один і той самий звук передається на письмі різними буквами та сполуками, і одна і та сама буква може передавати різні звуки. Так, 26 букв англійського алфавіту передають 44 звуки. Одна буква може позначати різні звуки.

Наприклад, буква „а” в залежності від позиції може виражати кілька голосних звуків: [ei] – tape, [æ] – map, [a:] – glass, [o:] – tall.

При вивченні англійської мови використовується фонетична транскрипція.

ЧИТАННЯ ГОЛОСНИХ

Загальна характеристика голосних

Однією з відмінних рис англійської системи голосних є наявність довгих та коротких звуків. Довгі голосні: [i:], [a:], [o:], [u:], [ə:]; короткі голосні: [ı], [ʌ], [o], [u], [æ], [e], [ə]. Довгота звука або його короткість можуть впливати на значення слова.

Дифтонгами називаються звуки, які складаються з двох елементів. Дифтонгів в англійській мові є вісім: [eı], [ou], [aı], [au], [oı], [ıə], [ɛə], [uə].

Вимова голосних залежить від положення складу, до якого вони входять (наголошеного або ненаголошеного), типу наголошеного складу, сполучення з

іншими голосними, сполученням з наступними голосними. Зі свого боку голосні можуть впливати на вимову приголосних.

В англійській мові є чотири типи наголошених складів, в яких голосні букви читаються по-різному. В односкладовому слові, слід визначити тип складу, тобто чи це закритий чи відкритий склад. Закритий склад, як відомо, закінчується на приголосний (bad, pan), відкритий – на голосний. Існують також умовно-відкриті склади, в яких наголошена голосна відокремлена від кінцевого німого e будьякою приголосною. Читання голосних в закритих та відкритих складах змінюється в залежності від наявності букви r після голосної.

Кожна голосна буква в англійській мові може передавати чотири різні звуки в залежності від типу складу. У закритому складі всі букви вимовляються коротко. У відкритому складі всі букви мають алфавітне звучання.

У третьому типі складів сполучення голосних з буквою r (або r + голосна) передають довгі звуки, дифтонги.

ЧИТАННЯ ПРИГОЛОСНИХ

Чіткість артикуляції глухих звуків в англійській мові більша, ніж в українській. Наприклад: bag, cat, map, very, box.

Приголосні фонеми

На відміну від української мови приголосні в англійській мові перед голосними переднього ряду [ı], [ı:], [e] та [æ] не пом’якшуються. Наприклад; did, deed, dead, dad.

В англійській мові кінцеві дзвінкі приголосні не оглушуються, оскільки дзвінкість та глухість кінцевих звуків є засобом розрізнення змісту. Наприклад: bag – back, sad – sat, lead – let, dug – duck, nod – not, pig – pick, said – set.

Подвоєні приголосні передають один звук. Наприклад: call, sell, mass,

dress.

Додаток 2

TEXTS FOR LISTENING COMPREHENSION

UNIT 1

Why is light industry so important for our country?

Hi, do you remember me? That's me, Ann Kovalchuk again. These are my ideas on how and why my future work is so necessary for our country.

Every time you are in a department store, shop mall, boutique, clothes shop or even in the market, you get impressed with great variety of clothes produced in China, Turkey, Thailand or Poland. You are sometimes lucky to find something made at the Ukrainian enterprise.

Sad but true, our people would rather buy foreign goods because of some reasons. First of all, it is due to poor reputation that our goods are the worst in the world. The second reason is the stereotype of better foreign quality. It is known that some Ukrainian plants produce their original products but sell them with foreign labels. So, if a customer wants foreign goods, he/she can get it. It goes without saying, light industry is rather profitable branch. There are very many talented students, future specialists in my university, but there is very little help for them.

Looking to the future, I want to hope that in some years, OK, in some decades, Ukrainian goods of light industry will become very popular on our market. They are not only clothes but also footwear, furniture, computers, light industry equipment and others. Thank you for attention.

UNIT 2

Mykhailo Voronin

Mykhailo Voronin is an academician, an inventor of the vest-model method for men’s clothes production, which requires no trying on. He is a famous designer and leading Ukrainian producer of men’s clothes. He was born on the 10th of July, 1938, in Kyiv.

The “Mykhailo Voronin” concern includes the “Zhelan” sewing factory, JV “Mykhailo Voronin Vienna-Paris”, the Trade house “Voronin-Ukraine”. In May 1987 the French company “Vestra-Union” put into operation experimental sewing factory “Zhelan”. The factory specializes on the sewing of men’s suits (jackets, trousers) of European level. The factory is placed in the central part of Kyiv – the capital of Ukraine. The factory is equipped with the most modern equipment and uses the models and technologies of the leading Ukrainian designer and the largest men’s clothes producer Mykhailo Voronin.

The times change, but such things as quality, elegance and functionality are still the main criteria of the clothes selection. Many things have changed during the last decades. Thanks to the modern equipment, advanced technologies, high selection criteria and the use of the most qualitative and modern fabrics, the “Mykhailo Voronin” concern creates things which correspond to high demands of world quality standards.

The aim of Mykhailo Voronin is to dress people in beautiful and qualitative clothes. The suits of the “Mykhailo Voronin” trade mark are ecologically safe garments, made on the unique equipment. The garments of the “Mykhailo Voronin” concern are distinguished by the European tailoring and sewing of suits, which always look elegant and modern.

Voronin’s garment is Italian elegance, English diplomacy and French refinement. The suits of the “Mykhailo Voronin” trade mark are light and practical thanks to diverse modern fabrics and applied material. Everyone feels confident, elegant and

respectable in a Voronin’s suit.

UNIT 3

National Symbols of Ukraine

The three national symbols of Ukraine are the emblem, flag and anthem.

The emblem of Ukraine is the Trident on a blue background. The Trident is an ancient symbol of the Ukrainian people, dating back more than 3000 years. The classic form of the Ukrainian trident is found on the gold and silver coins of Volodymyr the Great, the Prince of Kyiv.

The problems of the origin of the trident have still not been solved by scientists. On March 22, 1918, the trident was adopted by the Central Rada as the National

Emblem of the Ukrainian National Republic. It was adopted in the form of a Great and Small Coat of Arms representing the classic trident of Volodymyr the Great in an ornamental wreath.

Since 1992 the trident has again been used as the Emblem of Ukraine.

The three points of Trident symbolize the trinity of life: Father, Mother, and

child.

There is another point of view. As it is known “3” is a magic number. We can find examples in folk fairy tales: three roads, three heroes, three wishes.

Trident or Tryzub, and golden yellow and blue are national symbols of Ukrainian people. These colours were on the flags of the medieval state and during the Cossack age.

Following the Declaration of Independence, the blueand –yellow flag was adopted as the national flag of Ukraine on January 28, 1992. The Flag consists of two horizontal bands of blue and yellow. The top band is blue and the bottom one is yellow. The blue colour symbolizes the sky of Ukraine, the yellow colour is the colour of wheat fields.

The Ukrainian anthem is “Ukraine has not yet perished”. The music of the anthem was written by Mykhaylo Verbytsky and the poem by Pavlo Chubynsky.

UNIT 4

London College of Fashion

London College of Fashion is a unique centre of learning. Based in the heart of one of the world's greatest cities, its dynamic environment offers an exciting opportunity to study fashion.

With an international reputation for fashion education, London College of Fashion offers a specific range of courses for students; from fashion design and technology to image creation; its aim is to reflect the breadth of opportunities available in this changeable industry.

The college's reputation for excellence has recently been further enhanced by its merger with the prestigious Cordwainers College - with its century-old reputation as the leading provider of training and education in footwear and accessories.

Whether a student's passion is for footwear design, make-up for film, fashion styling for photographic shoots, the philosophy of all its courses is to offer creative development. Its emphasis lies firmly on professionalism: aiming to create an inspiring and instructive learning environment for its students. Many of its tutors combine teaching with careers within the industry. This allows them to pass on invaluable 'insider' knowledge to students, on the latest technologies, techniques and trends. So, they can offer their students a combination of practical and theoretical skills.

At London College of Fashion they believe that fashion is an international language. This outlook is reflected in the high number of international students they welcome to the college from over seventy countries. This cross-cultural mix helps to form a distinctive characteristic of the college community.

Since its inception, a century ago, the college has forged strong bonds with the national and international fashion industry. Due to its location in the heart of the UK's fashion industry, the college continues to enjoy a close relationship with the fashion, style and beauty industries in the UK.

UNIT 5

Cambridge

Cambridge is situated at a distance of 50 miles from London; the greater part of the town lies on the left bank of the river Cam crossed by several bridges.

Cambridge is one of the loveliest towns in England. It is very green with many beautiful groupings of architecture, trees, gardens, lawns and bridges. The picturesque city is the home of one of the oldest universities in the world. In Cambridge everything centres on the University and its colleges, the eldest of which was founded in 1284. There are about 30 colleges in Cambridge. The college is a group of buildings forming a square with a green lawn in the centre. An old tradition does not allow students to walk on the grass, this is the privilege of professors. There is another tradition which the students are to follow: after sunset they are not allowed to go out without wearing a black cap and a black cloak.

The University trains about 7000 students. They study for 4 years, 3 terms a year. The long vacation lasts 3 months. They are trained by a tutor; each tutor has 10-12 students under his guidance. There is a close connection between the University and its colleges. A college is a place where you live, no matter what profession you are trained for; so that students studying literature and physics belong to the same college. However you must be a member of a college in order to be a member of the University.

UNIT 6

George Washington

The first US President known to all Americans as "The Father of the Nation" was George Washington. George was born in Virginia in а planter's family. When the boy was eleven his father died. The family had а lot of land but not enough mоnеy to send George to school in England as rich families used to do at that time. The bоy went to а private school and, later, two private teachers taught him to bе а soldier and а Virginia gentleman. George learned to ride а horse, to hunt, shoot, sail and swim. Because he was good at arithmetic, he also learned to measure land. The young mаn went to faraway parts of the country to measure land for those who built their houses there. Не

spent hours оn horseback in all kinds of weather. Не learned to sleep out, cook his own meals, and work hard еvеrу day. Еvеrуоnе liked and trusted young George.

George Washington began his саrееr in the service of his country as а major in the Virginia militia and later bесаmе Commander in Chief of the Colonial Аrmу during the Revolutionary War. Не was among those who wrote the US Constitution in Philadelphia. People respected him for his courage, honesty and wisdom.

After the Revolutionary War Washington wanted to retire and livе at Mount Vеrnоn where he had а beautiful house and а big plantation. But he knew that his duty was to serve his country. Не hurried оff to New York City which was the capital then. Оn April, 30, 1789, before а large crowd Washington promised to "preserve, protect, and defend the Constitution of the United States". This is how George Washington bесаmе the first President of the country and served two terms. Не refused а third term and in 1797 he retired to Mount Vеrnоn where he died two years later.

UNIT 7

Ireland

When people talk about Ireland, they are usually referring to the Republic of Ireland. Ireland is the name for the whole island, which is split into two separate countries, Northern Ireland (part of the UK) and the Republic of Ireland (also known as Eire).

Ireland has a rich history and its evidence is found everywhere in the ruins of ancient monuments and castles some of which are older even than the Egyptian pyramids.

The misty green landscape of the 'Emerald Isle' is the setting for much folklore. - Ireland is host to mythological characters such as giants and fairies. The most famous of these аrе leprechauns - those cheeky little men who hide away with а pot of gold. Ireland also has а strong tradition of folk music and dancing.

Ireland’s greatest contribution to world culture is in the field of literature. And it is important to note that Ireland has two literatures, one in the native Gaelic or Irish language and another in the English language. The English of Ireland differs from the standard literary English in pronunciation, some words and turns of speech. There are few differences in the words themselves, but speech is more vivid, with turns of speech often derived from Gaelic and a flair for picturesque exaggeration that may sometimes lead a stranger astray.

Ireland has had а great impact оn English-language literature, having produced several Nobel Prize-winning writers, including Samuel Beckett, George Bernard Shaw. Oscar Wilde, James Joyce аlso hail from the Emerald Isle.

Ireland today is famed for the charm and wit of its people. The best place tо meet the people of Ireland is in the рub, over а pint of Guinness - the dark-coloured ale which apparently doesn't taste as good when served outside Ireland! For а taste of youthful Ireland, try the trendy Temple Bar area of Dublin, the capital of Ireland. Packed with bars, restaurants and funky shops, it attracts tourists and locals alike.

UNIT 8

Cultural Life of Ukraine

The cultural life of the Ukrainian people is rich and varied. From their pagan ancestors they have inherited a legacy of folk customs, rituals and rites. With the introduction of Christianity these traditional customs were combined with religious practices but they have retained all the beauty of the pre-Christian era.

Music has always been an essential part of Ukrainian folk culture. Since the 16th century, songs often have been accompanied by a lute-like instrument, called the bandura. Bandura players are highly esteemed by the Ukrainians. Ukrainian musical culture was associated very closely with church music.

The outstanding musical figure of the 19th century was the composer Mykola Lysenko who gave Ukrainian classical music its character. He incorporated folk-songs into his many compositions. This tradition was followed by such outstanding 20th century Ukrainian composers as Kyrylo Stetsenko, Olexander Koshuts and Mykola Leontovych, his popular Christmas song "Carol of the Bells" is heard in the U.S. today.

Dancing has always been a vital element of Ukrainian culture. Ukrainian folk dancing dates to the pre-Christian era.

Today Ukrainian folk dancing is further popularized by numerous professional and amateur dance groups in Ukraine and other countries.

Folk handicraft arts in Ukraine are especially well developed. Pysanky, woodcarving and inlay, ceramics, embroidery and weaving have been preserved and developed. Ukrainians especially love to embroider and use embroidery not only in their native dress. They also adorn other clothing, pillowcases, tablecloths, dresser scarves, and altar cloths. The designs used, generally geometric or floral ones, are done in brightly-coloured thread. The predominating colours are red or orange and black. Embroidery designs vary from region to region and even individual villages have their own patterns.

UNIT 9

Higher Education: Universities in Great Britain

If you want to enter the university, you must first pass examinations that most students take at the age of eighteen, they are called ‘A’ levels. Most students take three ‘A’ levels (three examinations in three different subjects) and they must do well in order to get a place at university because the places are limited.

If you get a place at university, the tuition is free, and some students also receive a grant as well. Students at university are called undergraduates while they are studying for their first degree.

Most university courses last three years, some courses last four years, and one or two courses, e.g. medicine, may be longer. During this period students can say that they are doing (studying) mathematics, or they are doing (studying) for a degree in mathematics, for example. When they finish the course and pass their examinations, they receive a degree. This can be a BA (Bachelor of Arts) or a BSc (Bachelor of Science).

When you complete your first degree, you are a graduate. Some students then go on to do a second course or degree (i.e. postgraduate course or degree). These students are then postgraduates. There are usually three possible degrees:

MA (Master of Arts) or MSc (Master of Science); usually one year. Mphil (Master of Philosophy); at least three years.

PhD (Doctor of Philosophy); at least three years.

If you want to get higher education in Great Britain, you must try to apply to various British universities, where Cambridge, Oxford, London and some other universities are the most famous.

UNIT 10

Textiles

A sound knowledge of fabrics is absolutely necessary for every person who has something to do with different branches of industry.

Fabrics are to the clothing, footwear, furniture manufacturers and interior designers what clay is to the sculptor, or steel and stone to the architect – the substance out of which the work of art is created. The story of textiles takes us back to the ancient history and brings us down through every century and every country of the world to nowadays.

As a matter of fact, prehistoric man developed a great variety of techniques for making cloth. The making of textiles is one of the very earliest arts of man. At sometime and in some place every known vegetable fibre and animal hair have been twisted into yarn and woven into cloth. Four of these fibres – cotton, linen, wool and silk – are still in use.

Modern textiles are not confined only to traditional yarns but also employ the man-made yarns such as rayon and various synthetics. These used in combination with each other, or with traditional materials and present the weaver with almost endless possibilities for new effects.

UNIT 11

My Future Speciality

I study at the department of the technological equipment and control systems. The students of our department are specializing in mechanics, automation of technological processes and control systems, industrial electronics, electrical engineering. Mechanical engineering is called a key industry due to its importance to all sectors of the national economy including mechanization, automation, chemical engineering, etc. Engineering is a complex consisting of inter-linked industries.

Machine-tool manufacture is the material and technical base of engineering. Mechanical engineering is rapidly changing. Instrument-making plays an increasingly important part. This branch of engineering produces automation equipment, quality control devices, computers, etc.

The development of automation is closely linked with progress in instrumentmaking and the output of up-to-date measuring and control instruments and devices. As future engineers we get a thorough knowledge of physics, mathematics, technical drawing, electrical engineering, strength of materials and machine parts, automation and control systems, computing, etc.

We are taught by a highly-qualified staff of professors and teachers. Our practical training and laboratory works are done in the laboratories equipped with modern installations, apparatuses and devices. Theoretical training is combined with scientific work at the scientific centres and students’ design bureaus. As a rule, students write their term and graduation papers on the problems connected with their scientific work.

They operate experimental and industrial installations, conduct research work, read scientific literature which deals with their speciality. It is also combined with practical training at the advanced enterprises. All these help to turn a student into a highly-skilled engineer, ready for independent work.

UNIT12

Christian Dior and the New Look

Haute couture had become international in the 1930s but the centre of the fashion world was still Paris.

The best-known of the post-war couturiers was Christian Dior, who became famous with his first collection in 1947 which presented his New Look.

Women were tired to death of uniforms, practical clothe, and a shortage of beautiful fabrics. Dior launched his first collection in the new feminine form. He staked his whole career on making women beautiful and elegant again. The American press called his first collection the New Look.

The new creation had long, full skirts using yards of material, a tiny waist and feminine, sloping shoulders. It was applied to dresses, coats, suits and skirts and was accompanied by elegant hats and high-heeled shoes. The new fashion was immediately popular but it took a year or so for everyone to acquire it. By 1950 Europe and America were dressed in the New Look and Dior went on to other things – always feminine but a little more practical, especially for working girls. Suddenly, in 1957, Dior died. The house of Dior continued, first under the young Yves St Laurent, then Mark Bohan.

UNIT13

BITME

The spring exhibitional season of Expocentre ends with BITME, the international exhibition specialized in the textile and leatherwear industry's equipment and technologies. The 9th edition of this event will unfold during the 12-17th July and will be hosted by the Expocentre Kyiv.

The domain represented by this exhibition, that is the textile and leather industry goes back a long way and presents a series of peculiarities, which define it in the landscape of Ukraine’s economy.

Organized by Expocentre in collaboration with its traditional partner Friedrich Kunst,Germany, BITME approaches a comprehensive theme which covers all the steps of the technological processes used in textile and leather industry. Let us mention some of them: weaving, lining machines, machines for producing and processing synthetic fibres, knitting machines, bleaching, dyeing, pressing, starching and sewing machines. The offer represented in the stands will be surely especially rich and varied.

UNIT14

Telecommunications

Саn а machine bе as intelligent аs а person? А few years ago most реорlе laughingly dismissed such a possibility. Today it has to bе taken seriously because

scientists and engineers аrе indeed developing computers that саn "think" in ways that humans do. They even can talk!

Exactly how do computers "talk" tо each other? Basically, there are two ways: computers саn bе linked bу telephone, or they саn bе connected bу cables and wires. Let's 1ook at both methods and see how they work.

Telecommunications is not new. Тhе telegraph was invented some оnе hundred and fifty years ago. And it was mоrе than а century ago, in 1876, that Alexander Graham Bell showed that electrical signals соuld bе used to send spoken words bу telephone. What is relatively new is the marriage of telephone аnd computer technologies.

Nowadays, the term telecommunications is commonly used to mеan the sending of data from оnе computer to another through telephone lines. Often, such data transmission is called telecomputing. Тhе data mау bе words, numbers, or programs. The computers that аrе doing the communicating mау bе microcomputers, minicomputers, mainframes, or а combination of these. They mау be located just across the street from еасh other - or across the continent.

UNIT15

Environmental Protection

Environmental protection is one of the most burning problems of our time. Nowadays every person knows what acid rain and greenhouse effect mean. In Ukraine, like everywhere in the world, people have done things that have badly damaged the nature. As a result, today it’s dangerous to eat fish that was caught in the river or mushrooms that were picked in the woods because they may be contaminated.

Ecologists list about 150 species that disappeared from our planet in the past three centuries. It’s too late to do something about those 150 species, but we could do something about the 240 species that are threatened now. Not only animals but many plants become extinct. The situation is most serious on islands where species found nowhere in the world exist. In the Hawaiian Islands 95 per cent of the plants are unique. And it’s possible to spend a vacation in Hawaii without ever seeing a native plant. Does it matter that whole species disappear? It does! The richly varied flora and fauna of our planet is beautiful and we want to preserve it that way. There are also practical reasons for protecting the nature. Plants often have unique medical and other properties. Animals still have much to teach us.

We hope that scientists and ecologists in many countries are working on solution of the ecological problems.

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ТЕКСТИ ДЛЯ ПОЗАКЛАСНОГО ЧИТАННЯ

THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE

Geographically, English is the most widespread language on Earth, second only to Chinese in the number of speakers. Over 350 million people speak English as their first language. The same number use it as the second language.

It became the international language. It is an official language in 44 countries. Over 60% of world’s mail, radio broadcast and periodicals are in English. In many countries it is the language of business, commerce and technology.

There are many varieties of English: American, Canadian, Australia and Pidgin English. English comes from a common Indo-European language. About 4,500 years ago, the people who spoke varying forms of this language split into groups that drifted into Europe and parts of Asia. Different speech communities developed, giving rise to several languages, including Latin. From Latin many languages spoken in Europe today developed.

Several factors contributed to establishing Standard English spelling. These factors included the introduction of the printing press into England in 1477 by William Caxton, the revival of interest in literature and growth of popular education. The need for standardization was recognized in the 13th century. The London dialect was gradually adopted from the four main dialects as the basis of Standard English. The choice was made because the London dialect was the language of contracts and commerce and the speech of the ruling court. All official documents originated there were written in the London dialect. The translation of the Book of Common Prayer and the King James’ version of the Bible became tremendous forces for elevated English.

Today the English vocabulary is half Germanic and half Romance. It has a lot of borrowings from other languages due to openness of vocabulary.

This made English an effective medium of international communication. The difficulties are caused by written English which is not systematically phonetic.

Why are many English words pronounced differently from the way they are spelt?

English spelling is unpredictable at the best of times, and occasionally totally chaotic – an opinion no doubt shared by British schoolchildren and those studying English around the world alike. However, studies of the language claim that there are only about 400 words in English whose spelling is wholly irregular. Unfortunately many of them are among the most frequently used in the language.

The problems with the English spelling system came about as the language developed over a period of 1,000 years. Some complications arose early; when the Romans tried to write down Old English using the 23 letter Latin alphabet. Old English contained nearly 40 vowels and consonants.

The influence of French after the Norman Conquest also made an impact on English spelling. French scribes introduced ‘qu’ where Old English had used ‘cw’ e.g. queen, and ‘gh’ instead of ‘h’ e.g. night, amongst other changes.

The introduction of the printing press in 1476 meant that a standard spelling system began to emerge. The system reflected the speech of the London area. The pronunciation of vowels underwent further changes during the 15th century, but because of the advent of the printing press, spelling never caught up.

Previously, scribes would have simply written down a new spelling to reflect the new pronunciation. Thus modern spelling in many ways reflects outmoded pronunciation of words dating back to the Middle Ages.

Despite many attempts to reform the English spelling system, so far no changes have been made since the 16th century - mainly because nobody can agree on what the best alternative may be!

KYIVO-PECHERSKA LAVRA

The Pecherska Lavra monastery was founded in 11 century. The building continued in for about 9 next centuries. The name Pecherska comes from the word «peshera» (cave) which was situated there. The monks used to live in these caves, more then 900 years the imperishable bodies of the monastery's founders - the Venerable Theodosius and Anthony, Agapit the Healer, Nestor the Chronicler, and relics of others 118 saints are slept there.

Lavra is usually called some big monasteries, which by their sizes and buildings looked like small towns, with own streets («lavra» in Greek means «the street»). And the life in this monk's towns is submitted to such clear lows and orders, as it’s impossible to be a full monastic life without.

There are 102 stone constructions based in 26 hectares area, which are recognized architectural monuments. There are more than 60 thousand of the displays in the reserve funds. There are the easel painting works of art, works of arts and crafts and old-printed books.

MUSEUM OF GREAT PATRIOTIC WAR

This World War II memorial complex, which opened in 1981, includes a museum with 18 different galleries, an eternal flame, numerous exhibits of documents of military commanders, participants of the war, collection of orders, medals and letters, documentary evidences of the war witnesses, unique things of the occupation and the liberation attract visitors' attention.

The centerpiece of it all is of course the massive titanium statue of woman «Mother of the Motherland», 62m tall to be exact, grasping a 12-ton sword and a shield. Honoring Soviet defenders during World War II, its Socialist Realism style is an interesting contrast to the nearby ancient golden domes of Pecherska Lavra.

BABYN YAR

A memorial park reminds us about one of the most horrible tragedies of the 20-th century. The name, which is roughly translated as «Ravine of a Women», refers to the proprietress of that ground, the woman, who sold it to the Dominican monastery in 1401. But all that changed on September 29-30, 1941, when 33,771 Jews were executed and their bodies thrown into the ravine by occupying Nazi forces. For the next two years the Nazis continued using the site as a mass killing ground. A total of over 100,000 victims, including partisans and members of the underground but mostly Jews were murdered here. As Kyiv's liberation became inevitable, the Nazis tried to burn the evidence of their atrocities, but shortly after the Soviet war crimes commission heard eyewitness accounts from surviving POWs. A large bronze composition with numerous figures of people-Soviet victims in general but not Jews in particular, of A smaller Jewish monument in shape of Jewish

symbol Menorah was erected in 1991, and another one remembers children who were killed here. Jewish groups are currently planning to build a museum and peace centre near the site.

ST. SOPHIA'S CATHEDRAL

Kyiv's oldest church was built in 1037 by Prince Yaroslav the Wise, who incidentally was laid to rest inside, to commemorate the site of the victory of Kyivan Rus over the Pechenegs (Asian tribes) and glorify Christianity. It was named after the famous St. Sofia's Cathedral in Constantinople. «Sofia» also means 'wisdom' in Greek. This majestic 13-cupola sanctuary adjoined Yaroslav's Palace and became a holy place of workshop for Kyivlany as well as political and cultural centre. With its interior to rich frescoes and mosaics, many of which are still intact almost a millennium later, St. Sophia's made a huge impression on the ordinary worshippers of Kyiv. A similar impression is felt by current visitors, so strong is the sense of history. Here grand princes were crowned and buried, formal ceremonies and receptions of envoys were held, meetings with foreign diplomats and treaty negotiations were held here. The Cathedral was known as a seat of Kiev Metropolitan. The first known library in ancient Rus and the first school for boys and girls were founded by Yaroslav the Wise... The azure and white bell tower is 76m high and was finished in 1752, while the upper Ukrainian Baroque part and gilded cupola were added in 1852. Today the entire cathedral is protected by Ukraine as a national reserve and also receives support from UNESCO. Mosaics and frescos of the 11th century, executed with a unique technology, which depict Scriptural scenes, individual figures of Church Fathers, Apostles, warriors and maidens, are of a great value.

The 18-century refectory is now a museum and contains archaeological artefacts and architectural displays, such as model panoramas depicting Kyiv as it looked before being razed by Mongol invaders in 1240.

ANDRIYIVSKY DESCENT

This is without a doubt one of the Kyiv's oldest and most beloved streets. In ancient times it linked the administrative part of the upper town with Podil, the lower town of merchants and artisans. Its steep and winding cobblestones are a traditional place for outdoor festivals and concerts, and it has numerous intriguing art galleries and museums. Many people associate Andrew's Descent with Montmartre of Paris. Of course, being at the very heart of the city's art community the street is a favourite stop for tourists in search of paintings and traditional Ukrainian crafts, as well as a repository for souvenirs and different Soviet stuff. The elegant silhouette of Baroque church one large dome and five lesser cupolas are easily visible from Podil and beyond. Built in 1754, Andrew's church is one of the most magnificent Christian Orthodox buildings in the city. The sidewalk artisans come out in the full force on weekends and big holidays. There's an interesting building that Kyivants refer to as the Castle of Richard the Lion-Hearted, built in 1902. A bit further down on the right is a steep, twisting flight of iron steps which will reward lovers of heights with yet another commanding vantage point above Podil and the Dnipro. At the bottom of the hill, turn left to reach the former marketplace of Kontraktova square or right to head towards the funicular at Poshtova square.

The One Street Museum is a charming little museum near the bottom of Andriyivsky descent tells the rich history of this important street through the years.

FOLK ARCHITECTURE AND LIFE MUSEUM PYROHOVO

Pyrohovo is definitely the only place in or around Kyiv where you can get by in a matter of minutes. This picturesque open-air museum has over 150 buildings - monuments of folk architecture, material and spiritual culture of various epochs from 25 regions of Ukraine from the 16th to the 20th centuries. You'll also find wooden churches, windmills, barns, wells and even a school building typical of rural areas from recent centuries. If everything seems very authentic, it's because most of the buildings are in fact original and were moved here piece by piece. Traditional Ukrainian clothing, ceramics and farming equipment are also on display.

At holidays, especially the religious ones, the folk groups give shows and public festivals are organized. During these festivals people traditionally wear national clothes and all guests could taste Ukrainian cuisine just like in the countryside. The displays of museum give to every visitor a realistic impression of the travel in time.

ST. MICHAEL'S GOLDEN-DOMED

CATHEDRAL

Originally built by Prince Sviatopolk in 1108, this cathedral was destroyed by the Soviet regime in the mid-1930s in keeping with their anti-religious programme. In our hard times, the reconstruction of St. Michael's Golden-Domed Cathedral is a sign of spiritual rebirth of Kiev - the cradle of Russian Christianity and all Ukraine, as a civilized European state. Its reconstruction was completed in May 2000. The sky blue exterior and glittering golden domes seem a bit too new and shiny for this ancient city and are certainly stunning. Another reminder of the Communists' inhuman policies is to the right as you exit the church. This monument is to the millions of Ukrainian victims of the Great Famine in 1932-1933. The monument is composed of a granite stone with recess made in a form of the cross and bronze effigy of Mother-Ukraine with a child. Farther out in the square, the statues of Princess Olha, Apostle Andriy, St. Cyrill and St. Methodius were also reconstructed in 1996.

KHRESCHATYK

Every guest will find something to his liking in Kyiv. The main street of Kyiv is Kreshchatyk is known by one and all. It's hard to believe that at the beginning of the last century there were large ravines which gave the locality its name Kreshchata Valley - Kreshchatyk, meaning «crossed», because of the many ravines that crossed it.

Every person visiting Kyiv has undoubtedly walked along this central thoroughfare, admiring its architecture, fountains, greenery and blossoms of the famous Kyiv chestnut trees. The trees also provide welcome shade during hot summer months, although at weekends and holidays when the street becomes a pedestrian area many prefer to frolic right here among outdoor festivals.

In 2001 the square was absolutely reconstructed, at Maidan Nezalezhnosty there was placed the statue of woman in Ukrainian national costume, standing at the 40meter column - the monument to Independence, near by there is conservatory, and a big underground shopping centre.