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7.Why is the truth not a defense to a charge of invasion of privacy?

8.In what case can public officials recover for defamation?

Text 5:

United States Legal System

In the United States legal system there are fundamentally three sources of law, the Constitution, legislation, and the courts. The US Constitution defines the basic powers of the three branches of government, and establishes the rights and responsibilities of the people. The legislature (the US Congress or state legislature) enacts laws by the representatives of the people. The courts provide legal rulings that define and interpret the law, and court cases provide important "precedent" for later cases. This is the basis of the common law system that had its origin in the British legal system.

Nearly 50 years ago the most important legal issue in American education was the question of integrated schools. The landmark Brown vs. Board of Education Supreme Court case determined that a "separate but equal" system of US education violated the equal protection clause of the US Constitution. For many years after the decision in Brown, the states struggled with the question of integration, how to break down the barriers to equal education for all races. A controversial method was forced "bussing" of students, and for many years this was the most divisive issue in US education. Many of these issues have been resolved, although the school systems in many urban with minority populations still suffer from neglect and lack of adequate support. In the 1990's there has been increasing dissatisfaction with a public school system that is often viewed as big, inefficient, bureaucratic, and unresponsive the needs of the students.

In the US Education system today there are two important issues relating to educational reform, and both of them have unresolved legal questions. Both issues have arisen as a result of parents and neighborhood schools seeking to have a greater control over the education of their children. The first issue is that of "vouchers", a system whereby a family is given a credit of a certain amount of money to apply to the education of their child. This credit can be used in a private or parochial (religious) school, or any other qualified institution. This is designed to give parents a greater freedom of choice, but it was challenged on the ground that it violates the US Constitution. The First Amendment provides that the government "shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion" and this brief clause formed the basis of the separation of church and state in America for more than two hundred years.

Many people oppose the voucher system, including the teachers unions, who claim that it will drain limited resources away from public schools. And many feel that the voucher is merely a way to cover up state support for religious education. They argued that the voucher system violated the US Constitution. But in November 1998, the US Supreme Court refused to hear the case challenging the Wisconsin voucher

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law. The Wisconsin courts had found the law to be valid. The practical effect of this case was to allow other states to adopt similar laws, and the trend can be expected to continue. Other states are now likely to follow the Wisconsin model, but it is entirely up to the state legislature to approve a system of vouchers.

The second major issue in US educational reform today is the charter school system. These are public schools, but they are "chartered" under special contracts designed to give the local school, and the parents, a much greater degree of freedom in choosing the curriculum and teachers. There are more than 30 states in the US today with charter school laws, and each one is different. The strongest charter school laws give the greatest autonomy and

permit the greatest flexibility in the type of organization that can sponsor a charter school. In some states even "for profit" corporations can run a charter school. In many states charter schools are exempted from most state educational laws, including the requirement to hire union teachers. Needless to say, the teacher's unions have often opposed charter schools.

It is interesting to note that both the voucher system and the charter school movement are working primarily to assist low-income students. As a practical matter in the US, this means minority students. The Wisconsin voucher program limits assistance to families with incomes no more than 175% of the "poverty" line. This means that the wealthier families (more than half of the public school population) are not eligible. Both the voucher system and the charter school system have had some degree of success because low-income parents want the best possible education for their children. And this may not always be found in the traditional system of large public schools. There seems to be an increasing trend towards charter schools in America, and each state has a different approach towards the level of autonomy provided.

Vocabulary

legal - юридический; issue - вопрос;

to face - сталкиваться; source - источник;

legislation - законодательство; court - суд;

to define - определять, давать определение; branch - ветвь;

to establish - устанавливать; responsibility - обязанность; legislature - законодательная власть; to enact - принимать (закон);

to provide - обеспечивать, предоставлять; ruling - управление;

to interpret - толковать; case - случай, дело; basis - основа;

common - общий, общепринятый; origin - происхождение;

integrated - объединенный, совместный; landmark - поворотный пункт, веза;

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vs. = versus - против; board - совет; supreme - верховынй;

to determine - определять; separate - раздельный; equal - равный;

to violate - нарушать; protection - защита; clause - статья, пункт; to struggle - бороться;

to break down - разрушить; controversial - противоречивый; to force - застявлять, принуждать; divisive - разделяющий (людей); to resolve - решать;

urban - городской;

to suffer (from) - страдать (от); neglect - пренебрежение;

lack (of) - отсутствие, нехватка; support - поддержка;

to increase - увеличивать; to view - рассматривать;

inefficient - неэффективный; responsive - ответный (о взгляде и.д.); to relate (to) - относиться (к);

to seek - искать;

whereby - при помощи, посредством; как, чем; certain - некий, определенный;

amount - сумма, количество;

to apply - применять, использовать; parochial - приходской;

institution - учреждение;

designed - здесь: предназначенный; to challenge - здесь: оспаривать; amendment - поправка;

to provide - обеспечивать, предоставлять; to respect - уважать;

brief - краткий, сжатый; to oppose - противостоять; to claim - утверждать;

to drain - истощать (средства);

public school - государственная школа; way - способ;

merely - просто;

to cover up - спрятать, прикрыть; to argue - оспаривать;

to refuse - отказываться;

valid - действительный, имеющий силу; to allow - позволять, разрешать;

to adopt - принимать (закон);

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similar - подобный, схожий; trend - тенденция;

entirely - полностью, целиком;

charter - устав; привилегия; даровать (хартию, грамоту..); to permit - позволять, разрешать;

flexibility - гибкость;

to sponsor - спонсировать, финансировать; for-profit - коммерческий;

to exempt (from) - освобождать (от); requirement - требование;

to hire - принимать на работу; movement - движение; low-income - низкий доход; matter - вопрос;

to limit - ограничивать; wealthy - состоятельный;

eligible - подходящий; желательный; degree - степень;

approach - подход;

towards - к, по отношению к; access (to) - доступ (к);

to rank - распределять, классифицировать.

Ex. Answer the following questions.

1.What are the sources of law in the U.S. legal system?

2.What are the functions of each of them?

3.What was the most important legal issue in American education 50 years ago?

4.What is the attitude of public toward the public school system in 1990-s?

5.What does the "voucher program" mean"? Give its historic background.

6.Do all people in America support this system?

7.What is the second major issue in U.S. educational reform?

8.What does a charter school mean?

9.Why do the teacher's unions oppose charter schools?

10.Who are supported by the voucher system and the charter school movement

Text 6:

THE WHOLE WORLD IS WATCHING.

As more and more cameras are connected to the net, the web is growing eyes. But is everyone ready for a close-up?

Webcams have been around for a few yeas now, transmitting round the-clock images of famous buildings, the surf conditions up and down the Pacific coastline, heavy traffic, street scenes and fish tanks. Since the first one went live sometime in the early '90s, Webcams have been proliferating steadily - though no one knows for sure how many are out there. An Internet search for the phrase "live Webcam" showed 9,28 Web pages. But there were many links to personal Webcam page where people are connecting cameras to the Internet and, privacy be damned, letting the world watch.

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And the world is tuning in. Observers of the Webcam phenomenon say it's the

logical next step for a society hooked on reality based television shows like "Cops" and MTV's popular "Real World" series. People are already turning cameras on

themselves the Internet allows them to effectively broadcast those images, cheaply and continuously. Why watch other people's lives when other people could be

watching yours?

Unfortunately, as entertainment, watching someone's life is even more boring than it sounds. Webcams tend to catch people in their most routine moments: sitting at

a desk in front of their computer, staring at their monitors or typing. And yet, for a growing number of the voyeuristically inclined, these cyber transmissions have a

strange appeal. Brian Cury, who runs a large Web-based directory of Webcam sites

atwww.earthcam.com, says, "You develop a relationship with that person and you start to care about them."

There is, for example, the Webcam Dave Williams set up for his daughter, Danielle. The Williamses' Web site featured a window where you could watch a

live snapshot of the baby that was updated once an hour, throughout the day and night, by a small $ 150 video-camera hanging above her crib. At the time

Williams thought it would be a neat way for friends and family to watch Dani as

she grew up. Then the fan e-mail started coming. From strangers in France. And Japan. And from a class of second grade somewhere in a small town .

Most of these people simply stumbled on the site in the course of regular Web

surfing. Traffic to the DaniCam site grew from a few hits a month to 1,000 a day. At first Dave and his wife, Sheryl, were amused by the attention. The true horror of what

they had done didn't hit them until they saw "The Truman Show," the 1998 movie in which a man unknowingly lives his life in front of cameras and a worldwide audience

of prime-time viewers. "We're sitting there watching the movie and Sheryl turns to me and says, 'You're disconnecting the Dani Cam'." That night, the DaniCam went dark

"To this day," says Williams, "people send e-mail saying, 'We miss Dani'."

Those Dani-addicts could migrate to the Marrero family camera, which is Webcasting images of Samantha, 2 y.o., and her brothel Matthew, who's a year old,

live from their shared bedroom in Newark, N.J. or to Web Dorm.com, where you can watch real-life college students eat, sleep and study in their natural habitat 24 hours a

day, seven days a week. Ryan Scott, a senior at Southen Methodist University, has kept his Webcam going for two years and uses it to socialize with friends and family,

and meet new people. Cody Ward, a 20-year-old at the University of Florida, starting

Web-camming a year ago out of curiosity but says he forgets the camera's even there anymore. "It's whatever. It's on."

Nobody knows this strange new world better than the female star of the Webcam

that started it all in 1996 - the JenniCam at www.jennicam.org (be careful; porn lives right next door at www.jenny cam.org). Jennifer Ringley, now 23, is still there, living

her life. The site started as a project for a computer class that Bingley took as a junior in college. She had seen a Webcam called The Amazing Fish Cam (pointed at an

aquarium in the offices of Netscape, the browser-software company) and thought to herself, "Why not?" Three years later, the site gets 4.5 million hits a day and costs

upwards of $15,000 a month to maintain. To help the financials break even, she

charges $15 a year for a "subscription.

There probably won't be too many more such Jennis in our lifetime. But Webcams are sure to be a feature of tomorrow's technology landscape. People are increasingly

discovering practical uses for them, such as monitoring a beach house during winter months or peeking in on kids through Webcammed day-care centers. In the future

Webcams might allow you to check out the scene inside a nightclub before you stand in line, or help you get out of traffic using highway Webcams that can beam gridlock

conditions to your moving car. These sorts of applications may well prove indispensable - and, in the process, make Webcam-addicts of us all.

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By Jennifer Tanaka

Vocabulary:

watch - наблюдать, следить connect - (под)соединять

webcam - видеокамера, подсоединенная к Интернету transmit - передавать

round-the-clock - разг. круглосуточный surf - плавание на волнах

coastline - побережье

heavy traffic - напряженное движение на дорогах tank - резервуар, бак; бассейн, пруд

in the early ’90 - в начале ‘90-х

proliferate - распространяться, численно возрастать steadily - упорно, постоянно

search - поиск

tune in - настраиваться на observer - наблюдатель

hooked on - разг.: помешанный на

broadcast - вещать, передавать (по радио, ТВ) continuously - беспрерывно

entertainment - развлечение boring - скучно, утомительно sound - звучать

tend - иметь тенденцию catch*- заставать routine - повседневный stare - уставиться inclined - склонный

appeal - здесь: влечение, привлекательность run* - вести

set up* - установить

feature - амер.: показывать (на экране) snapshot - снимок, кадр

update - обновлять

througout the day and night - круглые сутки hang* - висеть

crib - колыбель

neat - аккуратный; ловкий grow* up - расти

stranger - незнакомец fun - забавный stumble - наыкаться traffic - движение

amuse - забавлять, развлекать horror - ужас

unknowingly - не зная miss - скучать

addict (to) - пристраститься; предаваться migrate - перейти

shared bedroom - спальная на двоих

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habitat - жилище

senior - студент 4-го (последнего) курса socialize - общаться

curiosity - любопытство female - женщина junior - третьекурсник

amazing - удивительный, поразительный point at - указывать на

upward - вверх maintain - поддерживать charge - взимать плату subscription - подписка

increasingly - все в большей степени discover - обнаруживать

peek in - заглядывать day-care center

check out - проверять

stand* in line - стоять в очередь beam - высвечивать

gridlock - (ТВ)сетка экрана application - заявление indispensable - неотъемлемый

Comprehension Check.

Answer the following questions.

1.What is done with a help of Webcams?

2.Why do people turn cameras on themselves?

3.What did the Williamses’ Web site feature?

4.Was it alwaya a fun?

5.Will Webcams be widely used in future?

Topics to Discuss.

1.Using Webcams by ordinary people (take examples from the text).

2.Positive and negative sides of using Webcams.

Text 7:

SECRETARIES: THE WASTED ASSET.

Too many British managers cannot manage their own secretaries. That is the opinion of Juliet Hepburn, who began as a secretary and is now a leader of a campaign to maximise the use of a much underrated group of employees. The campaign is being run by the Industrial Society - an organisation with 16,000 members, including trade unions - which aims to increase the productivity and profitability of British businesses. It seems unreasonable to waste the time and talents of so many secretaries by limiting their duties to the traditional typing and tea-making activities.

Among the most popular of the 2,000 courses and conferences arranged each year by the society is one called «Helping Your Manager». Four years ago, when it began as a two-day course for secretaries and bosses, the project almost failed, for the simple reason that bosses were not willing «to waste two whole days».

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But once a secretary who participated in the two-day course for secretaries, brought in the managers at lunchtime on the second day, and after that things began moving. Now the society runs a dozen of such courses in London and throughout the country, and has had to double its advisory staff to cope with the extra work.

The doubts of its sponsors if there was the need for such a course were soon disappeared. Shock-horror tales of bad office practice began to emerge like copies from a duplicator and often they were as repetitious.

There were the bosses who came to the courses with their secretaries, but they refused to tell the details of their day's programme, or even their whereabouts. A common source of friction was the morning mail. There was one boss who insisted that when he was on holiday his letters should be forwarded to him, and another who would not allow his secretary to open his letters even when he was at work. After taking this course, he agreed that this might be unreasonable, but a follow-up inquiry from the society revealed that he was allowing his secretary to open the letters, but only in his office and under his beady eye. Progress can sometimes be slow.

A senior secretary in a law firm, who had opened everyone's mail since the days when the total staff was two partners and herself, continued to do so when they had expanded to employ 50 secretaries. The result was that the morning mail never arrived on desks before 3p.m.

On a more personal level Mrs Hepburn and her colleagues have been shocked by the number of managers who do not make time to talk to their secretaries on a regular basis.

Even when some enterprising girl makes her own appointment in the diary, that is always the one that is cancelled because of pressure of work. Small wonder that the turnover of secretaries in some companies is 60 per cent in a year.

«All you need to avoid this waste is to invest a little time in motivating secretaries to realise that they are part of the management structure,» Mrs Hepbum insists. At the course secretaries are questioned first of all about their perceptions of themselves. 'Too many think of themselves as only a secretary - an adjunct to, rather than a part of, the management team,» says Mrs Hepburn.

Next the secretaries are encouraged to use their initiative, to anticipate problems rather than to sit at their desks doing nothing. There is talk about office administration - making appointments, controlling a diary and evolving a system for keeping track of earlier decisions.

The importance of communicating - through letter writing, the telephone, face- to-face meetings - emphasised. «An awful lot secretaries would never shake hands with a visitor,» Mrs Hepburn says. When the bosses join the course during an informal lunch on the second day, their reactions never vary. 'They walk straight up to their secretaries and ask, with embarrassed grin: "What have you been saying about me?

Vocabulary.

waste - терять понапрасну asset - актив

manage - управлять, руководить opinion - мнение

campaign - кампания underrated - недооцениваемый employee - сотрудник, работник run* - руководить, проводить

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trade union - профсоюз aim - иметь целью increase - увеличивать

profitability - прибыльность businesses -мн.ч.: фирмы unreasonable - неразумный type - печатать на машинке

arrange - организовать, устроить fail - проваливаться, не удаваться bring* in - привести

dozen - дюжина

throughout the country - по всей стране double - удвоить

advisory staff - консультанты cope with - справляться с extra - дополнительный doubt - сомнение

need (for) - необходимость (в) disappear - исчезать

tale - история

emerge - появляться, возникать repetitious - повторяющийся refuse - отказываться

details - мн.ч.: подробности whereabouts - координаты common - обычный

source - источник friction - трение insist - настаивать

forward - переправлять, передавать allow - позволять

unreasonable - неразумно follow-up - последующий inquiry - опрос

reveal - открыть, обнаружить beady eye - бдительный взгляд expand - расширять(ся) employ - принять на работу level - уровень

enterprising - предприимчивый

make* an appointment - назначить встречу diary - дневник, книжка-календарь cancel - отменять

turnover - сменяемость avoid - избегать invest - вклажывать

motivate - заинтересовать realise - понимать

insist - настаивать perception - воспринимать

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adjunct (to) - приложение encourage - поощрять anticipate - предвидеть rather than - а не

evolve - развивать

keep* track (of) - вести запись communicating - общение

shake hands (with) - пожимать руки join - присоединяться

informal - неофициальный vary - различаться

embarrass - приводить в замешательство grin - усмешка

Comprehension Check.

Ex. Answer the following questions:

1.Why was the two-day course "Helping your manager" a failure

2.when it was conducted for the first time?

3.What happened to make the course successful?

4.How is it suggested that managers should improve the use of their secretaries?

5.How can secretaries help themselves?

Topics to discuss.

1.Traditional secretaries' duties.

2."Helping your manager" courses.

3.Secretary as a part of managers' team.

4.Men's reaction to having a woman as a boss.

QUATATIONS AND JOKES

HUMAN RIGHTS.

-It is time in the West to defend not so much human rights as human obligations.

-Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn.

LAW AND LAWYERS.

-It usually takes 100 years to make a law, after it's done its work, it usually takes 100 years to get rid of it.

-Henry Ward Beecher.

-You are remembered for the rules you break.

-Douglas MacArthur.

-A jury consists of twelve persons chosen to decide who has the better lawyer.

-Robert Frost.

-Lawyers and painters can soon change white to black.

-Danish proverb.

LIBERTY AND HUMAN RIGHTS.

-Liberty is always unfinished business.

- American Civil Liberties Union.

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-Rights that do not flow from duty well performed are not worth having. Gandhi.

-The spirit of liberty is the spirit which is not too sure that it is right. Learned Hand.

-Liberty is always dangerous - but it is the safest thing we have. Harry

Emerson Fosdick.

- Liberty means responsibility. That is why most men dread it. George

Bernard Shaw.

-My definition of a free society is a society where it is safe to be unpopular.

-Adlai Stevenson.

-The right to be heard does not automatically include the right to be taken seriously.

-Hunert Humphrey.

-The greatest right in the world is the right to be wrong.

-Harry Weinberger.

-Liberty is the right to do what the law permits.

-Montesquieu.

POLITICIANS.

-90% of the politicians give the other 10% a bad reputation.

- Henry Kissinger.

- A politician divides manking into two classes: tools and enemies.

Friedrich Nietzsche.

-Since a politician never believes what he says, he is surprised when others believe him.

-Charles de Gaulle.

POLITICS.

- Practical politics consists in ignoring facts.

- Henry Adams.

-Politics is the science of how who gets what, when and why.

- Sidney Hillman.

-In politics a wee is a very long time.

- Harold Wilson.

- In politics, a straight line is the shortest way to disaster.

- John P.Roche.

-In science, all facts, no matter how trivial or banal, enjoy democratic equality.

-Mary McCarthy.

-

-TIME.

-- 3 o'clock is always too late or too early for anything you want to do.

-Jean-Paul Sartre

-Punctuality is the thief of time.

-Oscar Wilde.

-- Never try to walk across a river just because it has an average depth of four feet.

-Martin Friedman.

-- The art of creation is older than the art of killing.

Andrei Voznesensky.

-- The public is wonderfully tolerant. It forgives everything except genius.

-Oscar Wilde.

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Приложение 2

Список основных сокращений, используемых в деловой корреспонденции:

А/С, АС, ас, С/А, са (account current) — текущий счет adsd (addressed) — адресовано

adse (addressee) — адресат, получатель

ad (advertisement) — рекламное объявление (множ. число ~ ads)

a.f. (as follows)— как указано далее

a.m. 1. (above mentioned) — вышеупомянутый; 2. (ante meridiem) — до полудня

(см. Урок 1)

Аррх (appendix) — приложение

Attn (attention) — вниманию (кого-либо)

В/Е (bill of exchange) — переводной вексель, тратта

B/L (bill of lading) — коносамент

СЕО (chief executive officer) — исполнительный директор cf (compare) — сравните

Co. (company) — компания

cont, contr. (contract) — контракт

Corp., Corpn (corporation) — корпорация

cur 1. (currency) — валюта; 2. (current) — текущий CV (curriculum vitae) — краткая биография

dd 1. (dated) — датированный; 2. (delivered) — доставленный Dept. (department) — 1. — отдел; 2. — министерство

doc., dct (document) — документы (множ. число — docs.) doz., dz (dozen) — дюжина

EAON (except as otherwise noted) — если не указано иначе

e.g. (exempli gratia, лат.) — например

enc., end (enclosed, enclosure} — вложенный, прилагаемый, вложение, приложение (к письму и т. п.)

exc., excl. (except, excluding, exception, exclusion) — исключая, исключение expn (expiration) — истечение (срока)

591

fig. (figure) — 1. цифра; 2. рисунок, схема

FY (fiscal year) — финансовый год h.a. (hoc anno, лат.) — в текущем году hf (half) — половина

Hp, H.P., h.p., H/P (hire purchase) — покупка в рассрочку id. (idem, лат.) — тот же

i.e., ie (id est, лат.) — то есть

incl. (including) — включая inv. (invoice) — счет-фактура

IOU (I owe you) — долговая расписка iss. (issued) — выпущенный (в обращение)

La. (letter of advice) — авизо, извещение L/A (letter of authority) — доверенность

L.C., L/C (letter of credit) — аккредитив

Ld, Ltd. (limited) — с ограниченной ответственностью " LOC (letter of commitment) — гарантийное письмо

mdse (merchandise) — товары memo (memorandum) — записка

M/P (mail payment) — почтовый перевод

M.T. 1. (mail transfer) — почтовый перевод; 2. (metric ton) — метрическая тонна

MV (merchant (motor) vessel) — торговое (моторное) судно

N/A (not applicable) — не применимо {напр., пункт в анкете) NB (лат.) — важное замечание

o/l (our letter) — (ссылаясь на) наше письмо

РА, Р/А, Р.А. 1. (personal assistant) — личный секретарь; 2. (power of attorney)

— доверенность

p.a. (per annum, лат.) — в год

par., para. (paragraph) — абзац, параграф, пункт

Pie, PLC (public limited company) — открытая акционерная компания с ограниченной ответственностью

РО (post office) — почтовое отделение

р.р. (pages) — страницы

рр, р.р. (per pro, лат.) — от имени и по поручению qv (quod vide) — смотри (там-то)

R&D (research and development) — научно-исследовательские и опытноконструкторские работы (НИОКР)

ret, rept (receipt) — расписка, квитанция re (regarding) — относительно

ref. (reference) — ссылка

RMS (root-mean-square) — средне-квадратический shipt (shipment) — отгрузка, отправка

sig. (signature) — подпись tn (ton) — тонна

urgt (urgent) — срочный v,, vs, vers. (versus, лат.) — против

VAT, V.A.T. (value-added tax) — НДС

V.I.P (very important person) — особо важное лицо v.s. (vide supra, лат.) — см.выше

v.v. (vice versa, лат.) — наоборот w/o (without} — без

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& (and) — и (союз)

@ — коммерческое at

# (number) — номер

Приложение 3

1. POST-SCHOOL OR TERTIARY EDUCATION USA

In the United States some universities were founded by private individuals and still receive a large part of their financial support from private donations. These are private universities, such as Yale or St. Louis University. Some of these private universities are supported by churches, so Notre Dame University is supported and controlled by the Roman Catholic Church. Some Universities were founded and are supported by the states where they are, for example the University of California (Los Angeles). State universities do get some of their money from private and business donations, but they are controlled by the States which started them.

MIT — The Massachusetts Institute of Technology, in Cambridge, near Boston has the same prestige as CalTech. It is an excellent American technical university. CALTECH — The California Institute of Technology, in Pasadena, Southern California is a private technical university. It is equal in prestige with the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in Cambridge, near Boston.

IVY LEAGUE is a group of eight prestigious universities in the Eastern United States. It includes Harvard, Yale and Princeton.

JUNIOR COLLEGE is an American college rather like a British Sixth Form College or Polytechnic. Usually the qualification to enter a Junior College is obtained by completing secondary school course of education. Junior colleges usually teach two year courses. They often have both practical and academic subjects. Some junior college courses may be credited towards University Degrees.

CEEB (the College Entrance Examination Board) is a private organisation in America. It prepares and marks tests and examinations which are used by Colleges and Universities to test the abilities and aptitudes of their entrants.

GREAT BRITAIN

OXBRIDGE — Oxford and Cambridge Universities are called “Oxbridge”. The equivalent British expression to “Ivy League” in America.

REDBRICK UNIVERSITY is Not Oxbridge. Redbrick universities were usually founded in the 19th as colleges of London University. Sometimes called Provincial Universities, some, like the University of Manchester have high prestige. British

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Universities founded since 1950 are called New Universities, such as the University of Sussex. New Universities include Technical Universities, such as the City University, in London.

UCCA (the University Combined Council on Admissions) co-ordinates the admission of most undergraduate students to British universities. The students put down several choices, and they are then offered places depending on their 'A' level examination results, and who has applied for which universities.

HNC, HND (High National Certificate and Higher National Diploma) are two qualifications that can be obtained in English technical colleges and polytechnics. They are as difficult to obtain as university degrees, but replace theoretical with practical material.

ONC, OND (Ordinary National Certificate and Ordinary National Diploma) are practical courses taken at Sixth Form Colleges and Polytechnics. They are not so difficult to obtain is HND and HNC, but are probably harder than 'A' level. NCAA (the National Council for Academic Awards) in Britain supervises the degree courses and examinations of polytechnics (but not universities).

1. UNIVERSITY PEOPLE

AN ACADEMIC is a teacher at a College, Institute or University.

ACADEMIC PUPILS (or students) study theoretical courses, not practical courses. AN ACADEMIC VISITOR is a person invited to teach or research from another

university for a short period.

ADJUNCT FACULTY - part-time teaching staff.

BURSAR is the member of the staff of an educational institution in England who works with money.

THE CHANCELLOR is a famous person who is Head of the University in name, but not in fact. American Universities usually have Principals.

THE VICE CHANCELLOR is in charge of academic as well as administrative matters.

THE PRO-VICE CHANCELLOR is a deputy of the VICE-CHANCELLOR.

A DEAN at a university is responsible for a Faculty or a large group of students. Thus the Dean of the School of Engineering is in charge of the Chemical, Electrical, Mechanical and other Engineering Departments.

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THE PRINCIPAL has the same job as a British Vice-Chancellor. Some American Universities have a Board of Regents, in which case the President of the Board of Regents roughly corresponds with the Chancellor of a British University.

A PROFESSOR is a university teacher who has been appointed to take this position. In England usually only the head of a department is a professor, so the title carries more prestige than in the United States, where many of the teachers in a department may be professors.

A VISITING PROFESSOR is a Professor who is normally based at one institution but who works for short periods of time at another, often on a regular basis.

A PROGRAM DIRECTOR is a person who is responsible for a curriculum and teaching materials for a certain subject or a cycle of disciplines.

'THE REGENTS of the State University of New York set examinations for New York High School students. These examinations are called “Regents”. Students sit for these examinations at about the age of 17 or 18.

THE REGISTRAR is the senior administrator of a British University.

AN UNDERGRADUATE STUDENT is one who has not yet obtained a university degree, or one who is working for a bachelor's degree.

A GRADUATE STUDENT is one who has already obtained one university degree and is studying for another one. You can say “As a rule all our PhD students are graduate students”. Sometimes one says “postgraduate” instead of “graduate”.

A FULL-TIME STUDENT studies at a university all the time. It is also possible to study part-lime. Day-release and blockrelease students study part time.

A part-time course of study is done while the student also works somewhere else. Many part-time students are mothers or have other jobs.

1. UNIVERSITY DEGREES

A DEGREE is the certificate awarded by a university to a student who has successfully completed a course of study which is recognised by other universities as being of the standard of a bachelor's' master's', or doctor's degree. Universities often award certificates for non-degree courses as well.

BACHELOR'S DEGREE is the lowest degree awarded by an English or American University. A BA is a bachelor of arts degree, а ВС is a bachelor of commerce degree, a BE is a bachelor of engineering degree, a BS is a bachelor of science degree. In England BSc (Eng) is also used for a BE.

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MASTER'S DEGREE is a degree obtained after a bachelor's degree and before a doctor's degree. Many master's degrees are research degrees. This means that a thesis or dissertation must be written instead of taking examinations. Many masters degrees have both. MA means Master of Arts, ME and MEng mean Master of Engineering, MS and MSc mean Master of Science.

Ph.D is a doctor of philosophy degree. PhD's are awarded for major pieces of research by Universities in English speaking countries. At some universities examinations are also required. At the University of Oxford, in England, and at Waikato University in New Zealand, PhD is called a D Phil (Doctor of Philosophy). A DSc is a higher degree than a PhD, more like a doctor's degree in the Russian educational system.

A DOCTOR'S DEGREE or a doctoral degree, is usually one which requires the completion of a piece of original research, submitted in the form of a thesis. The most common such degree is a PhD. In America PhDs usually require written examinations as well as a thesis.

DR is the abbreviation for doctor. A physician is called Dr, even if she has not obtained a doctor's degree. In the United States dentists and surgeons are also called Or, but not in Britain.

ChEng (A “Chartered Engineer”) in Britain is roughly equivalent to a “Professional Engineer (PE)” in America, or a “Diping” in Germany.

HONOURS are awards for very good work. An Honours Degree is a University degree with very high marks or with very difficult courses, or both. The American equivalent of an honours degree is a degree “cum laude”.

1. GRADING SYSTEM

AMERICAN GRADING SYSTEM corresponds to the following notations:

Grades: A, D, C, D, F

Quality points: 4.0, 3.5, 3.0, 2.5, 2.0,0.0

These grades are computed and included as part of student's official Grade Point Average (GPA). At the end of each semester students receive a report of their grades for courses taken. Any student, regardless of the length of attendance in the class, will receive for each course attempted one of the grades listed above.

All grades are awarded solely on the basis of the instructor's judgement of the student's scholarly achievement. Besides the grades given above for some courses or

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parts of courses students may be awarded with grades having no quality points. They are:

PS/F – Pass/Fail AU – Audit

CR/NCR – Credit/ No Credit

WA — WITHDRAWN ADMINISTRATIVELY.

Withdrawn Administratively is given when recommended by instructor and dean for poor attendance and/or other academic violation.

AUDIT indicates class attendance only. There is no credit or grade awarded in this option.

CREDIT/NO CREDIT. The CR grade will equate to А, В or С level of competence, and will mean that a credit is granted. The NC means that no credit is granted for the course.

1. SOME ADDITIONAL UNIVERSITY TERMS

BURSARY is a stipend paid to students so that they can do academic work. Usually a bursary is only awarded to students who have proved that they deserve help by doing well in an examination.

UNIVERSITY CALENDAR is issued by Most British Commonwealth Universities once each year. It contains schedules (timetables) of the important events in the university year, syllabuses and details of course requirements (соand prerequisites) and required texts, lecture room and laboratory timetables, and so on. CAMPUS is the area of a university, its buildings and immediate surroundings.

A COURSE is a planned unit of study at a school or university.

A COURSE REQUIREMENT is something that you must do so that you can do a course of study. “Physics is a course requirement for Engineering at this institute”. A CO-REQUISITE COURSE at a university is one that must be taken with another course. For example “calculus 1 is a co-requisite with physics 1 at this university.”

A BLOCK-RELEASE COURSE is one where the students are released from work for a block of several days. Block-release courses are often used to teach apprentices at English Sixth-Form Colleges and polytechnics.

DAY-RELEASE COURSE is like block-release. Day-release students study specified courses for one day each week at a sixth-form college, technical college or polytechnic.

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A SANDWICH COURSE is a course of study with something in between the periods of study. In the 1960 most of the British Colleges of Advanced Technology (which later became technical universities) had sandwich courses for their students. The students would come to the college for six months and then go back to work for six months. In this way the college resources were used for all twelve months of the year, and the students gained practical experience and were able to earn money while they studied.

CURRICULUM is a statement of everything taught in a course. The syllabus is the part of the curriculum that will be examined.

A DISSERTATION is an extended piece of written work. It is usually part of a master's or a doctor's degree. If the dissertation contains much new work, such as an original scientific discovery, it is a thesis.

ELECTIVES are subjects or courses which are optional, not compulsory, dependent on choice.

GRANT in England is money paid for a student to study.

SCHEDULE is a plan for different activities at different times. In Britain a schedule is called a timetable.

A THESIS is a dissertation, or a piece of written work, submitted for a university degree. A thesis is a dissertation which contains a lot of original research work. A PhD requires a thesis.

TUITION — teaching, instruction. Money paid for instruction.

TRANSCRIPT is a list of disciplines and grades a student was awarded at the end of each semester. Final transcript shows completion of baccalaureate degree.