Furthermore, the use of machine learning (ML) and articial intelligence (AI) in drug discovery is gaining momentum. AI and ML algorithms have the ability to identify patterns and predict activi­ties by analyzing datasets generated through plant research. This approach can streamline the drug development process, thereby reducing both the time and costs associated with methods. By com­bining AI and ML with established knowledge, scientists can focus on plants and substances with the potential for medical benets [101].

The use of engineering and synthetic biology is a method for generating plant- based substances in different systems. By moving the pathways of plants into microorganisms like bacteria or yeast, scientists can create signicant amounts of benecial compounds in a regulated and environmen­tally friendly way. This technique has proven effective in manufacturing substances like artemisinin and taxol, thereby illustrating the potential for the production of plant- based medications [9]. Furthermore, the advancement of CRISPR/Cas9 genome editing technology has unlocked possibili­ties for enhancing plant genomes. This technique empowers scientists to pinpoint genes and make modications facilitating the study of gene functions and the development of plants with enhanced medicinal properties. For instance, CRISPR/Cas9 has been applied to enhance the production of metabolites in plants, thereby elevating their potential as therapeutic agents. Alongside manipula­tion, utilizing biotechnology in plant tissue culture offers an scalable approach to producing bioac­tive compounds [104]. In controlled conditions, the process of growing plant cells or tissues in a laboratory setting is referred to as ‘plant tissue culture.’ This method allows for the production of compounds without needing to harvest the whole plant. Researchers have successfully used this technique to produce substances such as shikonin and ginsenosides, thereby demonstrating its via­bility for large- scale manufacturing [105].