is Fulyzaq (crofelemer, aproanthocyanidin oligomer, is responsible for notable antibacterial activ­ity (Orozco- Topete et al., 1997)). Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, and Salmonella typhi are signicantly eradicated by the Myrtus communis and Verbena ofcinalis leaf extracts. Furthermore, remarkable antibacterial activity is exhibited by Myrtus communis against Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Signicant antibacterial effects against Mycoplasma pneumoniae and Helicobacter pylori were shown by seed oil of Daucus carota (Carrot) and Melaleuca alternifolia (tea tree) oil, respectively (Wangchuk et al., 2011). Salmonella typhi, Citrobacter koseri, Klebsiella pneumoniae, and Staphylococcus aureus are shown to be signicantly inhibited by Artemisia vulgaris, Cinnamomum tamala, Oxalis cornic- ulate, and Ageratina adenophora methanolic extract (Manandhar et al., 2019). Additionally, a high antibacterial effect against Staphylococcus aureus, Enterococcus faecalis, and Enterobacter cloacae has been demonstrated by the hydro- methanolic extracts of Punica granatum, Berberis vulgaris, and Cistus monspeliensis (Bereksi et al., 2018). Various components such as, hyperphorin, hypercalin B, emodin and, hyperenone A from an endophytic fungus which is isolated from Hypericum acmose- palum, a well- known medicinal plant, exhibited potent antibacterial efcacy against various bacte­ria such as Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus aureus, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Escherichia coli, Salmonella enterica, and Mycobacterium tuberculosis. These components also show antifungal property against Candida albicans and Aspergillus niger (Osman et al., 2012). Numerous essential molecules are found in Hypericum olympicum, among which the main compounds are β-farnesene, spathulenol, and E- anethole while other components are also isolated from Hypericum olympicum E- caryophyllene, a novel form of acylphloroglucinol and germacrene D. It has been suggested that Hypericum olympicum crude extract demonstrated strong antibacterial action against various resistant strains of Klebsiella pneumoniae and Salmonella enteritidis (Shiu et al., 2012). Strong antiprotozoal activity and antibacterial activity is observed in natural resins isolated from medicinal herbs and their derivatives (Paraschos et al., 2012). Specically, propolis extract rich in avonoid content mainly (pino­cembrin and galangin) displayed greater antibacterial activity against various strains of Streptococcus pyogenes (Bosio et al., 2000). Studies revealed that Korean propolis demonstrates signicant antimi­crobial activity against Streptococcus mutans (Kim et al., 2011). A very strong antibacterial action against Staphylococcus aureus strains, including methicillin- resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), was demonstrated by the compound diaporthalasin, which is isolated from Diaporthaceae sp., a fungus from marine sponge (Liming et al., 2016). Some viruses and both gram- positive and gram- negative bacterial isolates are signicantly inhibited by the essential oil isolated from aromatic medicinal plants which include peppermint, fennel, lavender, and thyme, and these plants consist of a mixture of active compounds, such as phenylpropanoids, sesquiterpenes and, monoterpenes, which are responsible for antibacterial activity (Reichling et al., 2009; Sienkiewicz et al., 2012).

2010). The species are known as oxidants or free radicals and are very highly reactive; their half- life is short and causes damage to macromolecules like DNA, lipids, and proteins. Oxidants may be pro­duced from oxygen as reactive oxygen species (ROS) or they may originate from nitrogen as reac­tive nitrogen species (RNS). Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), superoxide anions (O2), reactive hydroxyl radicals (OH), and peroxyl radicals (ROO) are key reactive oxygen species. The free radicals pro­duced from nitrogen are nitrogen dioxide (NO2), nitric oxide (NO), dinitrogen trioxide (N2O3), and the peroxynitrite anion (ONOO) (Roja & Rao, 2000). Free radicals are generated continuously, resulting in severe damage to cells, tissue, and biomolecules and thereby leading to several diseases. Thus, an alternative medication to treat diseases linked to oxidative stress is medicinal plants with

1997). Medicines derived from plants consist of plants’ phytochemicals such as avonoids, polyphe­nols, and avoproteins, along with ascorbate, zinc, alpha- tocopherol, and carotenoids. Additionally, some plants or specic herb combinations in particular formulations may function as antioxidants by superoxide scavenging activity or by enhancing the activity of superoxide dismutase at several tissue sites (Niwano et al., 2011). Several mechanisms are used by antioxidants to exert their cell protection effect. Many plants, like herbs, fruits, vegetables, and some commonly used spices, possess cancer­protecting factors along with anti- oxidant properties. Based on the chemical structures, these factors are divided into several different groups, for example, carotenoids, carbohydrates, retinoids, polyphe­nols, trace metals, terpenes, thiols, tocopherols, glucosinolates (isothiocyanates, indoles and dithio­thiols), and others. The protecting effects are exerted by the group of several biochemical mechanisms. The biochemical processes responsible for carcinogenesis are still not understood and may differ according to the cancer type. Therefore, the explanation of the mechanism of carcinogenesis utilized by cancer- protecting factors must depend on the simplied carcinogenesis process. Here the model presented is a generalized initiation- promotion- conversion model. In this model, initiators are consid­ered to be genotoxic both directly or indirectly, promotors are considered as particles that are capable of conferring a growth advantage on initiated cells, and converters, including mutagens, recombino­gens, and clastogens, are considered to be genotoxic. Studies suggest that different mechanisms are used by cancer- protecting substances in fruits and vegetables against cancer initiation. These mecha­nisms include the polyphenol- scavenging effects on activated carcinogens and mutagens, the carot­enoid’s quenching effect on radicals, and singlet oxygen, additional the antioxidant effects is also possessed by several components like polyphenols and ascorbic acid. Flavonols and tannins pose inhibiting effect on activating enzymes, furthermore, the induction of enzymes involved in conjuga­tion and oxidation by indoles, dithiothiones, and isothiocyanates, the protecting of some sensitive structures by some phenols and the DNA repair stimulation by sulphur- containing compounds (Dragland et al., 2003). The mechanism of antipromotion at the biochemical level involves the anti­oxidant effect of carotenoids’ and polyphenols’ membrane- stabilizing effects. Furthermore, the inhi­bition of protease by components isolated from soybeans, the induction of immune response via carotenoids and ascorbic acid and ornithine decarboxylase inhibition by carotenoids and polyphenols. Experimentation identied a few inhibitors of conversion, but it is theoretically reasonable that many initiation inhibitors may also be efcient against conversion. The effect of anticarcinogenic com­pounds found in vegetables and fruits is investigated in the context of cancer inhibition and prevention (Saito et al., 2008). The antioxidant substances of plants are more than supporting agents to ght against disease and cellular damage. As indicated by folklore, many plants have been demonstrated to have particular functions in disease treatment and prevention. Silymarin is a commonly known liver antioxidant derived from the medicinal plant Silybum marianum (milk thistle) prevents the damage of the liver by free radicals scavenging among other mechanisms (Saito et al., 2008). This effective anti­oxidant prevents liver damage which is caused by poisoning by highly poisonous compounds present

Globally, the prevalence of inammatory etiology or pathology is increasing daily (Iwalewa et al.,