As reported by an editorial published many years ago by Robinow, but still quite truthful: “The stark reality is that pregnancy in the context of a history of mental

partners suffering from infertility, while female partners of depressed men are less likely to conceive. Although human and animal studies have demonstrated the asso­ciation between father’s mental health and an increased risk of adverse health out­comes in their offspring, the underlying biological mechanisms are unclear. Further research is therefore needed, although recently paternal mental health has become an emerging area of research interest, with a special focus on depression.

anomalies and infant mortality (Klonoff-Cohen etal. 2003). Children of fathers who drank heavily before conception have also been found to exhibit higher rates of behavioral and mental health problems, mostly represented by ADHD, hyperactiv­ity, anxiety, depression, and sleep disorders (Easey and Sharp 2021; Lo etal. 2024; Jansen etal. 2024). These effects often manifest early in life, with risks peaking at ages 2, 4, and 6. Interestingly, girls appear to show higher rates of emotional reactiv­ity and cognitive challenges compared to boys who are more likely to display somatic complaints and rule-breaking behaviors (Luan etal. 2022). The association between fathers’ alcohol consumption and an increased risk of neurodevelopmental disorders is also signicant. A recent study by May etal. (2023) suggested that paternal alcohol use may increase the risk of fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASD)—a condition characterized by cognitive difculties (problems with learn­ing, memory, attention, and problem-solving skills), behavioral disorders (impulsiv­ity, hyperactivity, and difculty with self-regulation), problems in interpersonal interactions, and physical abnormalities (distinctive facial features, growth delays, and organ anomalies) (Berlina 2024). May etal. (2023) found that fathers of chil­dren with FASD are more likely to have a history of heavy drinking. On average, these fathers consume 9.2 drinks per occasion, compared to 4.8 drinks in control groups, and exhibit signicantly higher rates of AUD.Although the mechanisms remain unclear, this association raises the possibility that paternal alcohol use may inuence FASD risk through genetic or environmental factors, or by affecting fam­ily dynamics and maternal health. A recent Swedish study (Khemiri etal. 2023) explored the impact of paternal AUD on the offspring’s risk of intellectual disability (ID), a neurodevelopmental disorder with altered cognitive, social, and physical development (DSM 2013). The exact mechanisms remain unclear, but probably the paternal alcohol use near conception may induce genetic mutations or epigenetic changes, contributing to ID risk. Moreover, the relationship between paternal alco­hol consumption and child outcomes appears to be dose-dependent: the more a father drinks, the greater the risks for his children (Luan etal. 2022).