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Файл:Ординатура / Хирургия / Библиотека им академика М.И. Перельмана / Книга_5238_Библиотеки_им_академика_М_И_Перельмана.pdf
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- •Contents
- •1.1 Introduction
- •1.2.1 Antidepressants
- •1.2.3.2 Second-Generation Antipsychotics (SGAs)
- •1.2.4 Mood Stabilizers
- •1.2.5 Stimulants
- •1.3 Conclusion
- •References
- •1.2.1.1 Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors
- •1.2.1.2 Bupropion
- •1.2.1.3 Other Less Commonly Used Antidepressants
- •1.2.2 Anxiolytics
- •1.2.3 Antipsychotics
- •1.2.3.1 First Generation Antipsychotics (FGAs)
- •2.2.8 Opioid Pharmacokinetics During Lactation
- •2.3 Conclusions
- •References
- •3.1 Introduction
- •3.2 Pregnancy Risk Categories
- •3.4.1.4 Monotherapy Versus Polytherapy
- •3.4.2.1 Experimental Studies
- •Animal Studies
- •3.4.2.2 Human Studies
- •Case Reports
- •Epidemiologic Studies
- •Meta-Analysis
- •3.4.2.3 Methodological Issues
- •Sample Size, Characteristics, Follow-Up
- •Recall Bias
- •Confounders
- •Confounding by Indication
- •Meta-Analysis
- •3.5 Lactation
- •3.5.1.4 Lipid Solubility
- •3.5.1.5 Pharmacogenomics
- •3.5.1.6 Oral Bioavailability
- •3.5.3.1 Milk Plasma Ratio (M/P Ratio)
- •3.5.3.2 Relative Infant Dose
- •3.5.3.3 Infant Plasma Concentration
- •3.5.3.5 Lactation Categories
- •3.7 Conclusion
- •References
- •4.1 Introduction
- •4.5 Conclusions
- •References
- •5.1 Introduction
- •5.2 Paternal Mental Health
- •5.2.1 Paternal Mental Health: Depressive Disorders
- •5.2.2 Paternal Mental Health: Anxiety Disorders
- •5.2.3 Paternal Mental Health: Bipolar Disorders
- •5.2.4 Paternal Mental Health: Posttraumatic Stress Disorders
- •5.2.5 Paternal Mental Health: Obsessive-Compulsive Disorders
- •5.2.6 Paternal Mental Health: Substance Use Disorders
- •5.4 Management Strategies
- •5.5 Conclusions
- •References
- •6.1 Introduction
- •6.5.1.1 Congenital Malformations
- •6.5.1.2 Preterm Birth
- •6.5.1.3 Low Birth Weight
- •6.5.1.4 Stillbirth
- •6.5.1.5 Low APGAR Scores
- •6.5.1.7 Neonatal Adaptation Syndrome
- •6.5.2.2 Neurodevelopmental Disorders
- •6.5.3 Maternal Outcomes
- •6.5.3.1 Postpartum Hemorrhage
- •6.5.3.2 Eclampsia, Hypertension
- •6.6.1 SSRIs
- •6.6.1.1 Sertraline
- •6.6.1.2 Paroxetine
- •6.6.1.3 Fluoxetine
- •6.6.1.5 Fluvoxamine
- •6.6.2 SNRIs
- •6.6.2.1 Duloxetine
- •6.6.2.2 Venlafaxine
- •6.6.3 TCAs
- •6.6.4 Atypical/Other Antidepressants
- •6.6.4.1 Vortioxetine
- •6.6.4.2 Bupropion
- •6.6.4.3 Mirtazapine
- •6.7 Statistical Significance Versus Clinical Significance
- •6.8 Conclusion
- •References
- •7: Antidepressants During Lactation
- •7.1 Introduction
- •7.2.2 Discussion
- •7.3.1 The Safety Scoring System
- •7.3.2 Methods
- •7.3.3 Safety Scores
- •7.3.3.1 Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRIs)
- •7.3.3.3 Tricyclic Antidepressants (TCAs)
- •7.3.3.4 Other Antidepressant Drugs
- •7.3.3.5 Neurosteroids Antidepressants
- •7.3.4 Discussion
- •7.4 General Discussion
- •7.5 Conclusion
- •Bibliography
- •8.1 Introduction
- •8.6 Gestational Diabetes
- •8.9.8 Special Cases
- •8.9.8.1 Risperidone
- •8.9.8.2 Aripiprazole
- •8.9.8.3 Clozapine
- •8.9.8.4 Olanzapine
- •8.11 Premature Infants/Low Birth Weight Infants
- •8.13.1 Definitions
- •8.15 Conclusion
- •References
- •Suggested Reading
- •9: Antipsychotics During Lactation
- •9.1 Introduction
- •9.3.2 Medication Risk Category Classifications
- •9.4 First-Generation Antipsychotics (FGAs)
- •9.4.1 Haloperidol
- •9.4.2 Chlorpromazine
- •9.5 Second-Generation Antipsychotics (SGAs)
- •9.5.1 Olanzapine
- •9.5.3 Quetiapine
- •9.5.4 Aripiprazole
- •9.5.5 Clozapine
- •9.5.6 Amisulpride
- •9.5.7 Ziprasidone
- •9.5.8 Newer Second-Generation Antipsychotics
- •9.6 Comprehensive Risk-Benefit Assessment Framework
- •References
- •10.1 Introduction
- •10.2 Lithium
- •10.2.1 Placental Transfer
- •10.2.2 Embryonic Period: Organogenesis
- •10.2.4 Child Development
- •10.2.5 Maternal Management
- •10.4 Antiepileptic Drugs
- •10.4.1 Placental Transfer
- •10.4.2 Carbamazepine
- •10.4.2.1 Embryonic Period: Organogenesis
- •10.4.3 Valproates
- •10.4.3.1 Embryonic Period: Organogenesis
- •10.4.4 Lamotrigine
- •10.4.4.1 Embryonic Period: Organogenesis
- •10.5 Conclusion
- •References
- •11: Mood Stabilizers During Lactation
- •11.1 Introduction
- •11.4.1 Lithium
- •11.4.2 Valproate
- •11.4.3 Carbamazepine
- •11.4.4 Oxcarbazepine
- •11.4.5 Lamotrigine
- •11.4.6 Topiramate
- •11.4.7 Gabapentin
- •11.6 Conclusion
- •References
- •12.1 Introduction
- •12.4.1 Benzodiazepines
- •12.4.2 Z-Drugs
- •12.5 Perinatal Complications
- •12.6 Conclusions
- •References
- •13.1 Introduction
- •13.2 Benzodiazepines
- •13.2.1 Diazepam
- •13.2.2 Clonazepam
- •13.2.3 Alprazolam
- •13.2.4 Lorazepam
- •13.2.5 Oxazepam
- •13.2.6 Midazolam
- •13.3 Z-Drugs
- •13.4 Conclusion
- •References
- •14.1 Introduction
- •14.2 Methadone, Buprenorphine, Buprenorphine/Naloxone
- •14.3 Naltrexone
- •14.4 Buspirone
- •14.5 Gabapentinoids
- •14.5.1 Pregabalin
- •14.5.2 Gabapentin
- •14.6 Pramipexole
- •14.7 Methylphenidate
- •14.8 Acamprosate
- •14.9 Disulfiram
- •14.10 Baclofen
- •14.11 Other Medicines
- •14.11.1 Nalmefene
- •14.11.2 Biperiden
- •14.12 Conclusions
- •References
- •15: Major Depression
- •15.1 Introduction
- •15.5.2 Safety Profile
- •15.5.3 Symptom Profile
- •15.5.5 Dosing
- •References
- •16: Bipolar Disorder
- •16.1 Introduction
- •16.2 Identifying Perinatal Bipolar Disorder
- •16.6.1 Acute Treatment
- •16.6.3 Maintenance Treatment
- •16.9 Conclusions
- •References
- •17.1 Introduction
- •17.5.1 Pregnancy
- •17.5.2 Postpartum Period
- •17.6 Conclusion
- •References
- •18: Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder
- •18.1 Introduction
- •18.3 Pharmacological Treatment
- •18.3.1 General Considerations
- •18.3.2.1 First-Line Treatment
- •Switch Between Antidepressants
- •SSRI Treatment at Supratherapeutic Doses
- •18.3.3 Prophylactic Treatment
- •18.3.3.1 Pre-conceptional Phase
- •18.3.3.2 Pregnancy
- •18.3.3.3 Postpartum Period
- •18.4 Conclusion
- •References
- •19: Anxiety Disorders
- •19.1 Introduction
- •19.6 Pharmacological Treatment
- •19.6.1 General Considerations
- •19.10 Conclusion
- •References
- •20: Posttraumatic Stress Disorder
- •20.1 Introduction
- •20.3 Pharmacological Treatment
- •20.3.1 General Considerations
- •20.4 Conclusion
- •References
- •21: Alcohol Use Disorders
- •21.1 Introduction
- •21.2 Epidemiology
- •21.7.1 Naltrexone Use
- •21.7.2 Disulfiram Use
- •21.7.3 Acamprosate Use
- •21.7.4 Nalmefene Use
- •21.7.5 Baclofen Use
- •21.7.6 Other Medications
- •21.8 Conclusions
- •References
- •22: Substance Use Disorders
- •22.1 Introduction
- •22.7 Conclusions
- •References
- •23.1 Introduction
- •23.3 Most Common Sleep Disorders During Peripartum
- •23.3.1 Insomnia
- •23.3.1.2 Pathophysiology
- •Hypnotic Benzodiazepines

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Table 15.1
Component Consideration
Clinical issues Assess for psychiatric symptoms in relation to:
Medications Inquire about effectiveness: What has been helpful in the past?
Alcohol and drug use Inquire about past or present use of alcohol or illicit drugs
Family psychiatric history Include history of psychiatric instability in female family
Medical history Rule out illnesses that may emerge or exacerbate in pregnancy
Social and developmental
history
Views and plans regarding
pregnancy, postpartum, and
parenthood
Evaluate level of
functioning
Assess for issues of safety Inquire about thoughts of self-harm, harm to others (especially
Assessment of the perinatal patient: clinically signicant considerations
Pregnancy (past or present)—Including history of birth
trauma or pregnancy loss
Postpartum (past or present)—Include whether breast-
feeding, supplementing with formula, or weaning
Premenstrual mood changes
History of abortion
Infertility treatment
Inquire about past or present symptoms or signs of eating
disorder or body image perceptions that may be particularly
problematic during pregnancy or the postpartum
Is the patient taking medications now? Are they effective? Any
side effects?
Inquire about beliefs and understanding regarding the use of
medication during pregnancy, breastfeeding
Inquire about the use of cannabis
Inquire about the use of painkillers
Rule out possible covert use
members in relation to pregnancy, postpartum
or postpartum (e.g., lupus, thyroiditis, bromyalgia)
Inquire about current relationships—Is there a partner, are they
supportive, psychologically aware?
Note history of emotional response and level of functioning in
response to past transitions, role changes, or traumatic events
Assess level of economic support as this may relate to ability to
get extra help if needed for child care and other responsibilities
Inquire about religious or cultural views that may be relevant to
interactions with the baby or may inuence the patient’s ability
to understand and accept treatment recommendations.
Inquire about expectations regarding pregnancy, motherhood
Inquire about plans for antenatal care, delivery, postpartum
preparations, childcare, breastfeeding
If postpartum, observe for interactions, bonding with baby,
other children (especially other children at home)
infant, if postpartum)
Establish whether any thoughts of harm are ego-syntonic or
ego-dystonic
Connect with child welfare authorities if needed for further
assessment

15 Major Depression
335
the same time, telepsychiatry may alert the observant clinician to the need to see a
patient in person, particularly if she is too distracted at home to focus on the appointment, or if safety issues are of concern. If a clinician observes psychotic signs or
symptoms, or serious behavioral aberrations that appear to impact the safety and
care of the infant or other children in the home, it is essential to arrange for an inperson evaluation.
The perinatal patient should be evaluated both for thoughts of self-harm and for
thoughts of harm towards infants and children. In the event that a mother has
thoughts of harming her child, it is important to assess whether these thoughts are
ego-syntonic or dystonic. Ego-syntonic thoughts of harming one’s child suggest
psychosis and invariably warrant intensive inpatient care. Ego-dystonic thoughts
may be indicative of obsessive-compulsive illness that, while disabling, does not
directly endanger the child. Only by carefully teasing out the nature of such thoughts
can the astute clinician assess whether child-care authorities should be called for
further evaluation of possible safety concerns in the home.
Newly pregnant women are at substantial risk for recurrence if they discontinue
the medications that have kept them well (Cohen etal. 2006). Thus, recommendations regarding medication are based not only on the patient’s current presentation,
but also on her history. Of particular importance to the perinatal assessment is a
detailed history of response to prior treatment regimens during past pregnancies and
postpartum periods, as this may guide future interventions.
A thorough reproductive history includes eliciting timing of menarche, menstrual irregularities, history of premenstrual psychiatric symptoms and response to
hormonal birth control, infertility treatments, and number and outcome of past pregnancies. Since past response to hormonal changes may be predictive of psychiatric
status during the perinatal period, this information can be a useful guide. A patient
who is older or has a history of prior losses, miscarriages, traumatic deliveries, or
repeated assisted reproductive procedures may understand and interpret available
data quite differently from a younger pregnant woman with no past obstetrical
stressors and considerable time ahead in which to achieve emotional stability prior
to conception.
Given the impact of alcohol and other substances on pregnancy, a substance use
history is essential to the perinatal evaluation. It is well known that alcohol use during pregnancy increases the risk of miscarriage, preterm birth, stillbirth, and sudden
infant death syndrome (SIDS) and is associated with lifelong behavioral, intellectual, and physical disabilities known as fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASDs).
Less is known about the effects of cannabis, but increasing evidence suggests that
gestational exposure is associated with increased risk of low birth weight, small for
gestational age, preterm birth (Baia and Domingues 2024), a small but statistically
signicant increased risk of birth defects (Andrade 2024), and potential risk of psychiatric disorders in exposed offspring (Bassalov etal. 2024). Given the increasing
availability of cannabis among the general population, and increased use due to
legalization in many locations, clinicians should counsel their perinatal patients
about the dearth of substantive rigorous data regarding teratogenicity and effects in
breastfed infants.

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S. Rasminsky and V. K. Burt
Understanding the setting into which a baby is born is also essential. Social history includes a detailed understanding of the relationships within the family of origin, family of a partner (if involved), history of trauma, developmental difculties,
educational history, employment (including plans about returning to work after
baby), nancial means, relationship with partner, and social supports. A patient’s
personal history of parental gures may provide insight into her ability to function
as she transitions into motherhood. A family history of mood disorders, particularly
during the postpartum, increases the risk for perinatal depression. A patient’s cultural and religious views of contraception, elective abortion, pregnancy, delivery,
and breastfeeding should be discussed. What constitutes pathology for one patient
may be a normal practice for another, and understanding the patient’s core values
and beliefs is integral to the collaborative decision-making process.
15.4 Risks ofUntreated Maternal Disorders
Depressive symptoms are extremely common during and after pregnancy, with
depression affecting 15–20% of pregnant women, with rates as high as 25% in middle and lower-income countries (Yin et al. 2021; Roddy Mitchell et al. 2023).
Although pregnancy is not itself a risk factor for depression, for women who enter
pregnancy euthymic and on antidepressant medication, discontinuation of their
medication increases the risk for recurrence of their symptoms (Cohen etal. 2006).
Depression during pregnancy carries with it signicant morbidity for both the
expectant mother and her developing fetus, and can have a downstream impact on
risk of postpartum depression and child development. Depression during pregnancy
can lead to challenges following prenatal directions and difculty eating a balanced
diet or gaining the recommended amount of weight, which can in turn have a negative effect on maternal obstetrical health and the health of the infant. Adverse effects
of untreated depression during pregnancy may include hypertension, pre-eclampsia,
preterm birth, spontaneous abortion, intrauterine growth retardation, and decreased
breastfeeding initiation (Ghimire etal. 2021; Jarde etal. 2016).
Women who are depressed are more likely to use alcohol, tobacco, and illicit
drugs to manage their symptoms, leading to deleterious effects on the developing
fetus. Seriously depressed pregnant women are at risk for suicidal thinking and
attempts. When depression is severe, some women contemplate abortion, even
when the pregnancy was desired and planned.
Women who experience depression during pregnancy have abnormalities of cortisol secretion, which affects the maternal hypothalamic pituitary axis and intrauterine hormonal milieu (Seth etal. 2016; Reynolds etal. 2013). It is hypothesized that
this dysregulation may explain some of the negative outcomes for infants of
depressed women. In addition, children born to mothers who are depressed in the
perinatal period are at increased risk for mood and anxiety disorders themselves,
and increasing data suggests that epigenetics may play a role (Stein etal. 2014;
Abrishamcar etal. 2024).

15 Major Depression
337
Depression during pregnancy is a major risk factor for postpartum depression,
which in turn affects child development. Maternal sensitivity to infant needs is
essential for the healthy development of an infant’s social, cognitive, and behavioral
skills. Depressed mothers often show inconsistent parenting behaviors, contributing
to adverse outcomes in their children, and children exposed to early maternal
depression may have increased behavioral problems and mental health symptomatology in early childhood (Park etal. 2018).
For mothers who experience depression during the postpartum, it may be difcult to meet their infant’s needs for the development of a secure attachment style,
rendering the child at a higher risk for poor functioning in a range of developmental
domains (López Seco etal. 2016; Wan and Green 2009). Mothers with even subclinical or mild depressive symptoms report signicantly impaired bonding with
their babies. They report feeling resentful, angry, and distant from their babies, and
have difculty feeling happy when their infants smile or feeling condent that they
can care for their babies. Poor maternal-fetal attachment during pregnancy may
contribute to abnormal maternal-infant attachment in the postpartum (Delavari etal.
2018). Successful treatment of maternal depression has been shown to have a posi-
tive impact for both mothers and their children (Weissman etal. 2006).
Partners of mothers with postpartum depression are also at risk for the development of mood and anxiety symptoms (Hoffman etal. 2017). When both parents are
stressed, this places further strain on the family structure and makes it more difcult
to meet the infant’s needs.
15.5 Treatment ofDepression During Pregnancy
Patient preference is an important consideration in the treatment of perinatal depression: what one woman may regard as unacceptable (e.g., any report of possible
increased risk of autism, no matter how limited the data) may be a reasonable risk
to another. While there is no one-size-ts-all strategy for managing depression during pregnancy, some general principles do apply. Table 15.2 outlines discussion
points throughout pregnancy, and Table 15.3 outlines general guidelines for
treatment.
If a woman is experiencing severe depression and is functionally impaired, or
has a history of psychosis, suicide attempts, chronic depression, or relapses following medication discontinuation, treatment with antidepressants is advisable. In
these cases, the risk of untreated maternal depression generally outweighs the risks
associated with antidepressant exposure in utero. Some women with even moderate
depression choose to remain on the medication that keeps them well. In such cases,
so long as known risks of both depression and antidepressant medication on both
mother and baby are reviewed, it is reasonable to continue pharmacologic management during pregnancy.
Nonpharmacological modalities vary from rst-line options for treatment of
mild disease to intensive treatment for refractory and severe depression.
Psychotherapy can provide much-needed support, as well as practical tools for

338
S. Rasminsky and V. K. Burt
Table 15.2
Pre-pregnancy
Discuss options regarding medication, ideally involving partner (partner should participate in
at least one visit)
Review risks of depression during pregnancy, as well as risks of medication during
Include information about baseline risks of major malformations (3–5%) and miscarriage
Explain that it may be necessary to adjust medication regimen to lowest effective dose of the
fewest medications
Coordinate with Ob/Gyn about plan for medication during pregnancy
Recommend starting prenatal vitamins
First trimester
Review choices about medication during pregnancy.
If not done previously, review risks of depression in pregnancy, as well as risks of
Discussion should focus on rst trimester exposure, e.g., risk of major malformations, risk
Monitor depressive symptoms and adjust medication dose as needed
Elicit feelings about motherhood
Discuss social supports during pregnancy
Coordinate with Ob/Gyn
Coordinate with therapist
Second trimester
Review choices about medication during pregnancy
Provide updates about any new data since last discussion
Monitor depressive symptoms; dose may need to be increased given changing metabolism
Discuss plans for delivery, including importance of in-hospital monitoring for babies exposed
to antidepressants in utero
Begin discussion of feeding choices, e.g., breastmilk, formula, combination
Coordinate with Ob/Gyn
Coordinate with therapist
Third trimester
Review choices about medication during pregnancy
Provide updates about any new data since last discussion
Review risk of neonatal abstinence syndrome (NAS)
Monitor depressive symptoms and adjust dose as needed; do not lower dose to prevent NAS
Review plans for delivery
Provide psychoeducation about postpartum depression to both patient and partner
Continue discussion of feeding choices, and make plan for protecting mother’s sleep after
delivery (e.g., sharing feedings, night nurse, etc.)
Encourage patient to meet with pediatrician, especially if she is planning to take medication
while breastfeeding
Discuss social supports after delivery, and help patient make plans to involve supports
Discuss plans for return to work, including childcare options
Discussion points for the treatment of depression in pregnancy
pregnancy and lactation
(20%)
medication during pregnancy and lactation
of miscarriage
(continued)

15 Major Depression
339
Table 15.2
Coordinate with Ob/Gyn
Coordinate with therapist
Postpartum
Meet 1–2weeks after delivery
Review delivery, complications, baby’s APGAR scores
Monitor depressive symptoms and adjust medication dose as needed
Discuss adjustment to motherhood and assess bonding with baby
Discuss feeding and provide support for whatever mother chooses (breastfeeding or formula)
Evaluate sleep and review plans for protecting mother’s sleep
Discuss support and adjust plans for help at home
Discuss plans for return to work, including childcare options
Coordinate with Ob/Gyn
Coordinate with therapist
Table 15.3
1. The best time to devise a treatment plan in women with histories of depression is before
2. Take care to decipher the data regarding possible medications in pregnancy or the
3. In general, unless there are clear adverse effects for the patient or her baby, use the
4. When possible, choose medication that has the most credible safety and tolerability data
5. Although not always possible, monotherapy is preferable to polypharmacy
6. Use the lowest effective dose. Do not compromise efcacy in order to adhere to a low
7. Monitor the patient frequently through pregnancy and the postpartum, adjusting the dose
8. Encourage the patient to try to get as much uninterrupted sleep as possible, as this is a
9. Encourage psychotherapy as this often provides benet to the depressed patient who is
10. Educate the patient about treatment options with regard to breastfeeding: exclusive
11. Consider hospitalization if the patient is seriously impaired, suicidal, or a threat to others,
(continued)
Pharmacologic treatment of perinatal depression: guidelines and considerations
they conceive
postpartum and explain the information to the patient and preferably also her partner
medication that has worked best in the past
dose
as needed clinically. Remember that for some medications, dose adjustments may be
needed due to hormonally-inuenced antidepressant metabolism, drug interactions, or
changes in extracellular volume
factor that often inuences antidepressant efcacy
being treated with medication. If needed, couples’ therapy may be helpful as well
breastfeeding, supplementing with formula, exclusive formula feeding, etc. Explain that
while most antidepressants are not contraindicated in breastfeeding, sleep is often
compromised when nursing, particularly if the patient is also pumping
including her baby
managing symptoms and understanding the contextual changes that accompany
new motherhood. Manualized therapies such as interpersonal therapy (IPT) and
cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) have shown efcacy for treating antenatal and
postpartum depression (Hankin etal. 2023; Shortis etal. 2020; van Ravesteyn etal.
2017; Sockol 2018). Bright light therapy is a noninvasive treatment for antenatal
depression (Li et al. 2023). An increasing body of literature suggests that

340
S. Rasminsky and V. K. Burt
transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) is both safe and effective during pregnancy (Kim etal. 2019; Lee etal. 2021). On the other end of the spectrum, electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) may be used during pregnancy for treatment of severe
depression that has not responded adequately to pharmacological management.
While some obstetrical complications have been reported with ECT use in pregnancy, it is largely a safe and effective treatment for patients with a heavy disease
burden, particularly if suicidality is involved (Ward etal. 2018).
15.5.1 General Principles ofTreatment
The decision about which medication to use is determined by a number of factors,
including a particular medication’s safety prole, stage of gestation, symptom prole, personal history of response to particular medications, and family history.
In general, monotherapy is preferred, and dosages should be kept at the minimum necessary to promote ongoing mood stability and normal functioning. The
goal is to treat with the fewest number of medications at the minimum effective
dose. Treatment needs may also change over time, since pharmacokinetic changes
during pregnancy may lead to alterations in drug or metabolite levels, with potential
need for dosing adjustments (Deligiannidis etal. 2014). If new literature emerges
during the course of a pregnancy, it should be carefully interpreted and shared with
the patient.
15.5.2 Safety Profile
The safety prole of antidepressants in pregnancy is outlined in Chap. 20. While
there are no randomized placebo-controlled trials of antidepressants in pregnant
women, registry data does provide some evidence-based guidance. There is more
data available for serotonin-reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) than other antidepressants
during pregnancy, and these agents are therefore generally considered rst-line
treatment (McAllister-Williams etal. 2017). While serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs) are less well studied than SSRIs, they have increasing data
associated with their use and are a viable alternative, particularly when a patient has
previously responded well to these agents. Tricyclic antidepressants have a long
history of use in pregnancy and may be a reasonable choice when a patient has
failed a newer medication or has a history of response to a TCA.The 2014 NICE
guidelines (last updated 2020) recommend treatment with an SSRI, SNRI, or TCA.
Ketamine and eskatamine have been found to be effective for patients with serious treatment-refractory psychiatric disorders. The increasingly widespread use of
these agents (especially following the US Food and Drug Administration’s approval
of esketamine for major depressive disorder in 2020) has raised concerns that
women of childbearing age who may knowingly or unknowingly be pregnant may
be exposed. A recent study found that fewer than half of clinics that dispense ketamine discuss potential impacts in pregnancy (Pacilio etal. 2024). Given that the

15 Major Depression
FDA has stated that ketamine is not recommended in pregnancy due to the sparsity
of data on fetal effects in humans, treatment with ketamine and esketamine should
be avoided during pregnancy.
While newer antidepressants may be touted as having fewer side effects than
their older counterparts, there is generally little to no literature regarding their use
in pregnancy. Unless a woman has done poorly on several better-studied treatments,
there is little justication for using a medication about which we have no information.
341
15.5.3 Symptom Profile
For the medication-naïve patient, symptom prole should guide the choice of antidepressant. For example, if a patient is particularly agitated or suffering with insomnia, a more sedating antidepressant is a reasonable rst choice. If the patient has an
anergic depression, a more activating antidepressant should be considered.
15.5.4 History ofResponse toParticular Medications
An important factor when recommending a medication during pregnancy is a
patient’s own history of medication response. Since the past is generally predictive,
restarting a medication that was previously effective is the most rapid and direct
way to achieve remission. If the medication previously used is one with minimal
data in pregnancy, it is worth considering a trial of a more-studied medication, for
example an SSRI.On the other hand, a trial with a new SSRI in a patient who has
previously failed to respond to another SSRI may only prolong the patient’s depression. Ideally, any medication change should take place prior to pregnancy, since
changing medications during pregnancy results in multiple exposures. Thus, for the
younger woman (e.g., less than 35years old, who is hoping to become pregnant, and
for whom there is time to try another medication), a trial of a more studied medication such as an SSRI is a reasonable approach. However, unlike the younger patient,
the woman over 35, perhaps with a history of infertility or multiple pregnancy
losses, may not have reproductive time ahead to experiment with a new medication.
In these cases, it is prudent to continue with a medication that has been effective, but
may have somewhat less data to support its use in pregnancy.
15.5.5 Dosing
Pharmacokinetic changes during pregnancy can lead to changing drug or metabolite
levels, and it is therefore possible that a dose that was previously effective will no
longer work for a particular patient. Since there are no dosing parameters specic to
pregnancy, standard depression dosing should be used as a starting point, with
adjustments made based on clinical response. A woman should be seen frequently
during pregnancy and should be made aware early in treatment that dosing may

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S. Rasminsky and V. K. Burt
need to be increased. While previous clinical guidelines recommended decreasing
the dose of antidepressants in the third trimester in order to mitigate the risk of neonatal abstinence syndrome (NAS), that strategy is no longer recommended for two
reasons: (1) Decreasing the dose prior to delivery leaves a woman undertreated just
as she enters the vulnerable postpartum period, and (2) Research studies have not
demonstrated a decrease in NAS with lower antidepressant doses (Warburton etal.
2010; Salisbury etal. 2016).
15.6 Treatment ofPostpartum Depression
The postpartum is a vulnerable time for women, particularly if they have histories
of depression either before or during pregnancy. Postpartum depressed women
often struggle with meeting the needs of their babies and other children while taking
care of their own mental health. Like depressed pregnant women, postpartum
depressed women frequently feel conicted about the “best” treatment regimen to
treat their depression while safeguarding the health of their babies.
As during pregnancy, the goal of the treating clinician should be to help new
mothers accept that although the information about treatment options is necessarily
limited by literature that is compromised by confounders and is constantly changing, of paramount importance is the need to recover from depression in order to
maximize the best possible outcome for mother, baby, and other family members.
While the information regarding treatment options is limited, it is sufcient to allow
clinicians to sort through treatment options with their patients, and to facilitate
thoughtful decisions that will enable a healthy and gratifying outcome for new
mothers and their babies.
As discussed earlier in the chapter (see “Assessment of the perinatal patient”),
the treatment of postpartum depression must include a thorough assessment of both
suicide risk and risk of infanticide. If a mother is deemed at high risk of harming
herself or her baby, she should be hospitalized, ideally in a setting where she can
continue to have contact with her infant while being supported in her recovery. It is
also important to screen depressed mothers for features associated with bipolar disorder (e.g., history of mania/hypomania, family history of bipolar disorder, switches
on antidepressants, early onset of mood symptoms, etc.), since postpartum depression can sometimes be the index episode of bipolar illness (Azorin etal. 2012).
In general, if a woman has responded well to a particular medication in the past
(including during pregnancy), that medication should be the starting point. SSRIs
are the best studied and most frequently used medications for postpartum depression. There are very few randomized controlled trials of antidepressants for postpartum depression. Pooled estimates from a 2021 Cochrane review found that SSRIs
were more effective than placebo in treating postnatal depression, but the certainty
of the evidence was low (Brown etal. 2021). Medication dose should be increased
to an effective dose as quickly as tolerated; caution should be exercised not to
underdose a woman because she is nursing.

15 Major Depression
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Most postpartum women are sleep deprived due to their babies’ feeding schedules, and lack of sleep is magnied signicantly when mothers choose to breastfeed
(often pumping around the clock to augment milk production). Even if they are
totally exhausted and suffer from increasing debilitating depression, many women
feel guilty even thinking about limiting or discontinuing breastfeeding. For those
depressed women who nd breastfeeding to be fullling, they worry about exposing
their babies to psychiatric medications.
From a clinical standpoint, decisions about breastfeeding should be made with
attention not only to medication safety, but also to the impact on maternal mental
health. If a woman nds breastfeeding to be fullling, she should be encouraged to
continue. However, if breastfeeding worsens her depression or interferes with her
ability to care for herself and her baby, she should be given permission to stop.
Most antidepressants are considered compatible with breastfeeding, with weightadjusted maternal dose delivered through breast milk falling under the 10% threshold regarded as clinically relevant. As during pregnancy, the SSRIs are better studied
during lactation than other antidepressants, and sertraline is generally considered
the preferred agent due to its minimal passage into breast milk (Orsolini and
Bellantuono 2015). Please see Chap. 20 for details about particular antidepressants
during lactation.
When discussing options regarding the treatment of postpartum depression, it is
essential to address the importance of sleep. Fatigue during the postpartum period
worsens depressive symptoms, and depression contributes to further insomnia
(Giallo etal. 2016). Even if a woman is breastfeeding, it can be helpful to have
another person (partner, relative, night nurse) assist with night feeding, in order to
allow the new mother to get one uninterrupted stretch of sleep. Depression is
extremely challenging to treat when a woman is signicantly sleep-deprived, and
adequate sleep often goes a long way toward the successful treatment of postpartum
depression. Treatment of postpartum depression should also address co-morbid
anxiety, which is common in new mothers and can impact both sleep and daily
functioning.
While most women can be treated with psychotherapy and antidepressants, some
postpartum depression is not responsive to standard treatment. The advent of
neurosteroid hormones to treat postpartum depression has opened a new avenue of
treatment beyond the longstanding reliance on serotonergic antidepressants.
Brexanolone, an intravenous formulation of allopregnanolone—a positive allosteric
modulator of γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA
) receptors—was approved by the US
A
Food and Drug Administration in 2019 to treat postpartum depression (Powell etal.
2020). Zuranolone, its oral equivalent, was approved in 2023. Brexanolone must be
administered intravenously over 60h and can cause excessive sedation, requiring
patients to be hospitalized or treated in specialized settings for about 3 days. A
major advantage of zuranolone is that it is taken as a single daily pill for 2 weeks,
requiring no active surveillance or specialized in-patient settings. Both brexanolone
and zuranolone have rapid onset, differentiating them from traditional antidepressants. Zuranolone’s antidepressant efcacy was sustained through day 45 and anxiety, global, and maternal functioning were also improved. (Deligiannidis et al.
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