Добавил:
kiopkiopkiop18@yandex.ru t.me/Prokururor I Вовсе не секретарь, но почту проверяю Опубликованный материал нарушает ваши авторские права? Сообщите нам.
Вуз: Предмет: Файл:
Ординатура / Хирургия / Библиотека им академика М.И. Перельмана / Книга_5238_Библиотеки_им_академика_М_И_Перельмана.pdf
Скачиваний:
0
Добавлен:
15.09.2026
Размер:
15 Мб
Скачать
☆
334
S. Rasminsky and V. K. Burt
Table 15.1
Component Consideration Clinical issues Assess for psychiatric symptoms in relation to:
Medications Inquire about effectiveness: What has been helpful in the past?
Alcohol and drug use Inquire about past or present use of alcohol or illicit drugs
Family psychiatric history Include history of psychiatric instability in female family
Medical history Rule out illnesses that may emerge or exacerbate in pregnancy
Social and developmental history
Views and plans regarding pregnancy, postpartum, and parenthood
Evaluate level of functioning
Assess for issues of safety Inquire about thoughts of self-harm, harm to others (especially
Assessment of the perinatal patient: clinically signicant considerations
Pregnancy (past or present)—Including history of birth
trauma or pregnancy loss
Postpartum (past or present)—Include whether breast-
feeding, supplementing with formula, or weaning Premenstrual mood changes History of abortion Infertility treatment Inquire about past or present symptoms or signs of eating disorder or body image perceptions that may be particularly problematic during pregnancy or the postpartum
Is the patient taking medications now? Are they effective? Any side effects? Inquire about beliefs and understanding regarding the use of medication during pregnancy, breastfeeding
Inquire about the use of cannabis Inquire about the use of painkillers Rule out possible covert use
members in relation to pregnancy, postpartum
or postpartum (e.g., lupus, thyroiditis, bromyalgia) Inquire about current relationships—Is there a partner, are they
supportive, psychologically aware? Note history of emotional response and level of functioning in response to past transitions, role changes, or traumatic events Assess level of economic support as this may relate to ability to get extra help if needed for child care and other responsibilities Inquire about religious or cultural views that may be relevant to interactions with the baby or may inuence the patient’s ability to understand and accept treatment recommendations.
Inquire about expectations regarding pregnancy, motherhood Inquire about plans for antenatal care, delivery, postpartum preparations, childcare, breastfeeding
If postpartum, observe for interactions, bonding with baby, other children (especially other children at home)
infant, if postpartum) Establish whether any thoughts of harm are ego-syntonic or ego-dystonic Connect with child welfare authorities if needed for further assessment
15 Major Depression
335
the same time, telepsychiatry may alert the observant clinician to the need to see a patient in person, particularly if she is too distracted at home to focus on the appoint­ment, or if safety issues are of concern. If a clinician observes psychotic signs or symptoms, or serious behavioral aberrations that appear to impact the safety and care of the infant or other children in the home, it is essential to arrange for an in­person evaluation.
The perinatal patient should be evaluated both for thoughts of self-harm and for thoughts of harm towards infants and children. In the event that a mother has thoughts of harming her child, it is important to assess whether these thoughts are ego-syntonic or dystonic. Ego-syntonic thoughts of harming one’s child suggest psychosis and invariably warrant intensive inpatient care. Ego-dystonic thoughts may be indicative of obsessive-compulsive illness that, while disabling, does not directly endanger the child. Only by carefully teasing out the nature of such thoughts can the astute clinician assess whether child-care authorities should be called for further evaluation of possible safety concerns in the home.
Newly pregnant women are at substantial risk for recurrence if they discontinue the medications that have kept them well (Cohen etal. 2006). Thus, recommenda­tions regarding medication are based not only on the patient’s current presentation, but also on her history. Of particular importance to the perinatal assessment is a detailed history of response to prior treatment regimens during past pregnancies and postpartum periods, as this may guide future interventions.
A thorough reproductive history includes eliciting timing of menarche, men­strual irregularities, history of premenstrual psychiatric symptoms and response to hormonal birth control, infertility treatments, and number and outcome of past preg­nancies. Since past response to hormonal changes may be predictive of psychiatric status during the perinatal period, this information can be a useful guide. A patient who is older or has a history of prior losses, miscarriages, traumatic deliveries, or repeated assisted reproductive procedures may understand and interpret available data quite differently from a younger pregnant woman with no past obstetrical stressors and considerable time ahead in which to achieve emotional stability prior to conception.
Given the impact of alcohol and other substances on pregnancy, a substance use history is essential to the perinatal evaluation. It is well known that alcohol use dur­ing pregnancy increases the risk of miscarriage, preterm birth, stillbirth, and sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) and is associated with lifelong behavioral, intellec­tual, and physical disabilities known as fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASDs). Less is known about the effects of cannabis, but increasing evidence suggests that gestational exposure is associated with increased risk of low birth weight, small for gestational age, preterm birth (Baia and Domingues 2024), a small but statistically signicant increased risk of birth defects (Andrade 2024), and potential risk of psy­chiatric disorders in exposed offspring (Bassalov etal. 2024). Given the increasing availability of cannabis among the general population, and increased use due to legalization in many locations, clinicians should counsel their perinatal patients about the dearth of substantive rigorous data regarding teratogenicity and effects in breastfed infants.
336
S. Rasminsky and V. K. Burt
Understanding the setting into which a baby is born is also essential. Social his­tory includes a detailed understanding of the relationships within the family of ori­gin, family of a partner (if involved), history of trauma, developmental difculties, educational history, employment (including plans about returning to work after baby), nancial means, relationship with partner, and social supports. A patient’s personal history of parental gures may provide insight into her ability to function as she transitions into motherhood. A family history of mood disorders, particularly during the postpartum, increases the risk for perinatal depression. A patient’s cul­tural and religious views of contraception, elective abortion, pregnancy, delivery, and breastfeeding should be discussed. What constitutes pathology for one patient may be a normal practice for another, and understanding the patient’s core values and beliefs is integral to the collaborative decision-making process.
15.4 Risks ofUntreated Maternal Disorders
Depressive symptoms are extremely common during and after pregnancy, with depression affecting 15–20% of pregnant women, with rates as high as 25% in mid­dle and lower-income countries (Yin et al. 2021; Roddy Mitchell et al. 2023). Although pregnancy is not itself a risk factor for depression, for women who enter pregnancy euthymic and on antidepressant medication, discontinuation of their medication increases the risk for recurrence of their symptoms (Cohen etal. 2006). Depression during pregnancy carries with it signicant morbidity for both the expectant mother and her developing fetus, and can have a downstream impact on risk of postpartum depression and child development. Depression during pregnancy can lead to challenges following prenatal directions and difculty eating a balanced diet or gaining the recommended amount of weight, which can in turn have a nega­tive effect on maternal obstetrical health and the health of the infant. Adverse effects of untreated depression during pregnancy may include hypertension, pre-eclampsia, preterm birth, spontaneous abortion, intrauterine growth retardation, and decreased breastfeeding initiation (Ghimire etal. 2021; Jarde etal. 2016).
Women who are depressed are more likely to use alcohol, tobacco, and illicit drugs to manage their symptoms, leading to deleterious effects on the developing fetus. Seriously depressed pregnant women are at risk for suicidal thinking and attempts. When depression is severe, some women contemplate abortion, even when the pregnancy was desired and planned.
Women who experience depression during pregnancy have abnormalities of cor­tisol secretion, which affects the maternal hypothalamic pituitary axis and intrauter­ine hormonal milieu (Seth etal. 2016; Reynolds etal. 2013). It is hypothesized that this dysregulation may explain some of the negative outcomes for infants of depressed women. In addition, children born to mothers who are depressed in the perinatal period are at increased risk for mood and anxiety disorders themselves, and increasing data suggests that epigenetics may play a role (Stein etal. 2014; Abrishamcar etal. 2024).
15 Major Depression
337
Depression during pregnancy is a major risk factor for postpartum depression, which in turn affects child development. Maternal sensitivity to infant needs is essential for the healthy development of an infant’s social, cognitive, and behavioral skills. Depressed mothers often show inconsistent parenting behaviors, contributing to adverse outcomes in their children, and children exposed to early maternal depression may have increased behavioral problems and mental health symptom­atology in early childhood (Park etal. 2018).
For mothers who experience depression during the postpartum, it may be dif­cult to meet their infant’s needs for the development of a secure attachment style, rendering the child at a higher risk for poor functioning in a range of developmental domains (López Seco etal. 2016; Wan and Green 2009). Mothers with even sub­clinical or mild depressive symptoms report signicantly impaired bonding with their babies. They report feeling resentful, angry, and distant from their babies, and have difculty feeling happy when their infants smile or feeling condent that they can care for their babies. Poor maternal-fetal attachment during pregnancy may contribute to abnormal maternal-infant attachment in the postpartum (Delavari etal.
2018). Successful treatment of maternal depression has been shown to have a posi-
tive impact for both mothers and their children (Weissman etal. 2006).
Partners of mothers with postpartum depression are also at risk for the develop­ment of mood and anxiety symptoms (Hoffman etal. 2017). When both parents are stressed, this places further strain on the family structure and makes it more difcult to meet the infant’s needs.
15.5 Treatment ofDepression During Pregnancy
Patient preference is an important consideration in the treatment of perinatal depres­sion: what one woman may regard as unacceptable (e.g., any report of possible increased risk of autism, no matter how limited the data) may be a reasonable risk to another. While there is no one-size-ts-all strategy for managing depression dur­ing pregnancy, some general principles do apply. Table 15.2 outlines discussion points throughout pregnancy, and Table 15.3 outlines general guidelines for treatment.
If a woman is experiencing severe depression and is functionally impaired, or has a history of psychosis, suicide attempts, chronic depression, or relapses follow­ing medication discontinuation, treatment with antidepressants is advisable. In these cases, the risk of untreated maternal depression generally outweighs the risks associated with antidepressant exposure in utero. Some women with even moderate depression choose to remain on the medication that keeps them well. In such cases, so long as known risks of both depression and antidepressant medication on both mother and baby are reviewed, it is reasonable to continue pharmacologic manage­ment during pregnancy.
Nonpharmacological modalities vary from rst-line options for treatment of mild disease to intensive treatment for refractory and severe depression. Psychotherapy can provide much-needed support, as well as practical tools for
338
S. Rasminsky and V. K. Burt
Table 15.2
Pre-pregnancy
Discuss options regarding medication, ideally involving partner (partner should participate in at least one visit)
Review risks of depression during pregnancy, as well as risks of medication during
Include information about baseline risks of major malformations (3–5%) and miscarriage
Explain that it may be necessary to adjust medication regimen to lowest effective dose of the fewest medications
Coordinate with Ob/Gyn about plan for medication during pregnancy Recommend starting prenatal vitamins
First trimester
Review choices about medication during pregnancy. If not done previously, review risks of depression in pregnancy, as well as risks of
Discussion should focus on rst trimester exposure, e.g., risk of major malformations, risk
Monitor depressive symptoms and adjust medication dose as needed Elicit feelings about motherhood Discuss social supports during pregnancy Coordinate with Ob/Gyn Coordinate with therapist
Second trimester
Review choices about medication during pregnancy Provide updates about any new data since last discussion Monitor depressive symptoms; dose may need to be increased given changing metabolism Discuss plans for delivery, including importance of in-hospital monitoring for babies exposed
to antidepressants in utero Begin discussion of feeding choices, e.g., breastmilk, formula, combination Coordinate with Ob/Gyn Coordinate with therapist
Third trimester
Review choices about medication during pregnancy Provide updates about any new data since last discussion Review risk of neonatal abstinence syndrome (NAS) Monitor depressive symptoms and adjust dose as needed; do not lower dose to prevent NAS Review plans for delivery Provide psychoeducation about postpartum depression to both patient and partner Continue discussion of feeding choices, and make plan for protecting mother’s sleep after
delivery (e.g., sharing feedings, night nurse, etc.) Encourage patient to meet with pediatrician, especially if she is planning to take medication
while breastfeeding Discuss social supports after delivery, and help patient make plans to involve supports Discuss plans for return to work, including childcare options
Discussion points for the treatment of depression in pregnancy
pregnancy and lactation
(20%)
medication during pregnancy and lactation
of miscarriage
(continued)
15 Major Depression
339
Table 15.2
Coordinate with Ob/Gyn Coordinate with therapist
Postpartum
Meet 1–2weeks after delivery Review delivery, complications, baby’s APGAR scores Monitor depressive symptoms and adjust medication dose as needed Discuss adjustment to motherhood and assess bonding with baby Discuss feeding and provide support for whatever mother chooses (breastfeeding or formula) Evaluate sleep and review plans for protecting mother’s sleep Discuss support and adjust plans for help at home Discuss plans for return to work, including childcare options Coordinate with Ob/Gyn Coordinate with therapist
Table 15.3
1. The best time to devise a treatment plan in women with histories of depression is before
2. Take care to decipher the data regarding possible medications in pregnancy or the
3. In general, unless there are clear adverse effects for the patient or her baby, use the
4. When possible, choose medication that has the most credible safety and tolerability data
5. Although not always possible, monotherapy is preferable to polypharmacy
6. Use the lowest effective dose. Do not compromise efcacy in order to adhere to a low
7. Monitor the patient frequently through pregnancy and the postpartum, adjusting the dose
8. Encourage the patient to try to get as much uninterrupted sleep as possible, as this is a
9. Encourage psychotherapy as this often provides benet to the depressed patient who is
10. Educate the patient about treatment options with regard to breastfeeding: exclusive
11. Consider hospitalization if the patient is seriously impaired, suicidal, or a threat to others,
(continued)
Pharmacologic treatment of perinatal depression: guidelines and considerations
they conceive
postpartum and explain the information to the patient and preferably also her partner
medication that has worked best in the past
dose
as needed clinically. Remember that for some medications, dose adjustments may be needed due to hormonally-inuenced antidepressant metabolism, drug interactions, or changes in extracellular volume
factor that often inuences antidepressant efcacy
being treated with medication. If needed, couples’ therapy may be helpful as well
breastfeeding, supplementing with formula, exclusive formula feeding, etc. Explain that while most antidepressants are not contraindicated in breastfeeding, sleep is often compromised when nursing, particularly if the patient is also pumping
including her baby
managing symptoms and understanding the contextual changes that accompany new motherhood. Manualized therapies such as interpersonal therapy (IPT) and cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) have shown efcacy for treating antenatal and postpartum depression (Hankin etal. 2023; Shortis etal. 2020; van Ravesteyn etal.
2017; Sockol 2018). Bright light therapy is a noninvasive treatment for antenatal
depression (Li et al. 2023). An increasing body of literature suggests that
340
S. Rasminsky and V. K. Burt
transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) is both safe and effective during preg­nancy (Kim etal. 2019; Lee etal. 2021). On the other end of the spectrum, electro­convulsive therapy (ECT) may be used during pregnancy for treatment of severe depression that has not responded adequately to pharmacological management. While some obstetrical complications have been reported with ECT use in preg­nancy, it is largely a safe and effective treatment for patients with a heavy disease burden, particularly if suicidality is involved (Ward etal. 2018).
15.5.1 General Principles ofTreatment
The decision about which medication to use is determined by a number of factors, including a particular medication’s safety prole, stage of gestation, symptom pro­le, personal history of response to particular medications, and family history.
In general, monotherapy is preferred, and dosages should be kept at the mini­mum necessary to promote ongoing mood stability and normal functioning. The goal is to treat with the fewest number of medications at the minimum effective dose. Treatment needs may also change over time, since pharmacokinetic changes during pregnancy may lead to alterations in drug or metabolite levels, with potential need for dosing adjustments (Deligiannidis etal. 2014). If new literature emerges during the course of a pregnancy, it should be carefully interpreted and shared with the patient.
15.5.2 Safety Profile
The safety prole of antidepressants in pregnancy is outlined in Chap. 20. While there are no randomized placebo-controlled trials of antidepressants in pregnant women, registry data does provide some evidence-based guidance. There is more data available for serotonin-reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) than other antidepressants during pregnancy, and these agents are therefore generally considered rst-line treatment (McAllister-Williams etal. 2017). While serotonin-norepinephrine reup­take inhibitors (SNRIs) are less well studied than SSRIs, they have increasing data associated with their use and are a viable alternative, particularly when a patient has previously responded well to these agents. Tricyclic antidepressants have a long history of use in pregnancy and may be a reasonable choice when a patient has failed a newer medication or has a history of response to a TCA.The 2014 NICE guidelines (last updated 2020) recommend treatment with an SSRI, SNRI, or TCA.
Ketamine and eskatamine have been found to be effective for patients with seri­ous treatment-refractory psychiatric disorders. The increasingly widespread use of these agents (especially following the US Food and Drug Administration’s approval of esketamine for major depressive disorder in 2020) has raised concerns that women of childbearing age who may knowingly or unknowingly be pregnant may be exposed. A recent study found that fewer than half of clinics that dispense ket­amine discuss potential impacts in pregnancy (Pacilio etal. 2024). Given that the
15 Major Depression
FDA has stated that ketamine is not recommended in pregnancy due to the sparsity of data on fetal effects in humans, treatment with ketamine and esketamine should be avoided during pregnancy.
While newer antidepressants may be touted as having fewer side effects than their older counterparts, there is generally little to no literature regarding their use in pregnancy. Unless a woman has done poorly on several better-studied treatments, there is little justication for using a medication about which we have no information.
341
15.5.3 Symptom Profile
For the medication-naïve patient, symptom prole should guide the choice of anti­depressant. For example, if a patient is particularly agitated or suffering with insom­nia, a more sedating antidepressant is a reasonable rst choice. If the patient has an anergic depression, a more activating antidepressant should be considered.
15.5.4 History ofResponse toParticular Medications
An important factor when recommending a medication during pregnancy is a patient’s own history of medication response. Since the past is generally predictive, restarting a medication that was previously effective is the most rapid and direct way to achieve remission. If the medication previously used is one with minimal data in pregnancy, it is worth considering a trial of a more-studied medication, for example an SSRI.On the other hand, a trial with a new SSRI in a patient who has previously failed to respond to another SSRI may only prolong the patient’s depres­sion. Ideally, any medication change should take place prior to pregnancy, since changing medications during pregnancy results in multiple exposures. Thus, for the younger woman (e.g., less than 35years old, who is hoping to become pregnant, and for whom there is time to try another medication), a trial of a more studied medica­tion such as an SSRI is a reasonable approach. However, unlike the younger patient, the woman over 35, perhaps with a history of infertility or multiple pregnancy losses, may not have reproductive time ahead to experiment with a new medication. In these cases, it is prudent to continue with a medication that has been effective, but may have somewhat less data to support its use in pregnancy.
15.5.5 Dosing
Pharmacokinetic changes during pregnancy can lead to changing drug or metabolite levels, and it is therefore possible that a dose that was previously effective will no longer work for a particular patient. Since there are no dosing parameters specic to pregnancy, standard depression dosing should be used as a starting point, with adjustments made based on clinical response. A woman should be seen frequently during pregnancy and should be made aware early in treatment that dosing may
342
S. Rasminsky and V. K. Burt
need to be increased. While previous clinical guidelines recommended decreasing the dose of antidepressants in the third trimester in order to mitigate the risk of neo­natal abstinence syndrome (NAS), that strategy is no longer recommended for two reasons: (1) Decreasing the dose prior to delivery leaves a woman undertreated just as she enters the vulnerable postpartum period, and (2) Research studies have not demonstrated a decrease in NAS with lower antidepressant doses (Warburton etal.
2010; Salisbury etal. 2016).
15.6 Treatment ofPostpartum Depression
The postpartum is a vulnerable time for women, particularly if they have histories of depression either before or during pregnancy. Postpartum depressed women often struggle with meeting the needs of their babies and other children while taking care of their own mental health. Like depressed pregnant women, postpartum depressed women frequently feel conicted about the “best” treatment regimen to treat their depression while safeguarding the health of their babies.
As during pregnancy, the goal of the treating clinician should be to help new mothers accept that although the information about treatment options is necessarily limited by literature that is compromised by confounders and is constantly chang­ing, of paramount importance is the need to recover from depression in order to maximize the best possible outcome for mother, baby, and other family members. While the information regarding treatment options is limited, it is sufcient to allow clinicians to sort through treatment options with their patients, and to facilitate thoughtful decisions that will enable a healthy and gratifying outcome for new mothers and their babies.
As discussed earlier in the chapter (see “Assessment of the perinatal patient”), the treatment of postpartum depression must include a thorough assessment of both suicide risk and risk of infanticide. If a mother is deemed at high risk of harming herself or her baby, she should be hospitalized, ideally in a setting where she can continue to have contact with her infant while being supported in her recovery. It is also important to screen depressed mothers for features associated with bipolar dis­order (e.g., history of mania/hypomania, family history of bipolar disorder, switches on antidepressants, early onset of mood symptoms, etc.), since postpartum depres­sion can sometimes be the index episode of bipolar illness (Azorin etal. 2012).
In general, if a woman has responded well to a particular medication in the past (including during pregnancy), that medication should be the starting point. SSRIs are the best studied and most frequently used medications for postpartum depres­sion. There are very few randomized controlled trials of antidepressants for postpar­tum depression. Pooled estimates from a 2021 Cochrane review found that SSRIs were more effective than placebo in treating postnatal depression, but the certainty of the evidence was low (Brown etal. 2021). Medication dose should be increased to an effective dose as quickly as tolerated; caution should be exercised not to underdose a woman because she is nursing.
15 Major Depression
343
Most postpartum women are sleep deprived due to their babies’ feeding sched­ules, and lack of sleep is magnied signicantly when mothers choose to breastfeed (often pumping around the clock to augment milk production). Even if they are totally exhausted and suffer from increasing debilitating depression, many women feel guilty even thinking about limiting or discontinuing breastfeeding. For those depressed women who nd breastfeeding to be fullling, they worry about exposing their babies to psychiatric medications.
From a clinical standpoint, decisions about breastfeeding should be made with attention not only to medication safety, but also to the impact on maternal mental health. If a woman nds breastfeeding to be fullling, she should be encouraged to continue. However, if breastfeeding worsens her depression or interferes with her ability to care for herself and her baby, she should be given permission to stop.
Most antidepressants are considered compatible with breastfeeding, with weight­adjusted maternal dose delivered through breast milk falling under the 10% thresh­old regarded as clinically relevant. As during pregnancy, the SSRIs are better studied during lactation than other antidepressants, and sertraline is generally considered the preferred agent due to its minimal passage into breast milk (Orsolini and Bellantuono 2015). Please see Chap. 20 for details about particular antidepressants during lactation.
When discussing options regarding the treatment of postpartum depression, it is essential to address the importance of sleep. Fatigue during the postpartum period worsens depressive symptoms, and depression contributes to further insomnia (Giallo etal. 2016). Even if a woman is breastfeeding, it can be helpful to have another person (partner, relative, night nurse) assist with night feeding, in order to allow the new mother to get one uninterrupted stretch of sleep. Depression is extremely challenging to treat when a woman is signicantly sleep-deprived, and adequate sleep often goes a long way toward the successful treatment of postpartum depression. Treatment of postpartum depression should also address co-morbid anxiety, which is common in new mothers and can impact both sleep and daily functioning.
While most women can be treated with psychotherapy and antidepressants, some postpartum depression is not responsive to standard treatment. The advent of neurosteroid hormones to treat postpartum depression has opened a new avenue of treatment beyond the longstanding reliance on serotonergic antidepressants. Brexanolone, an intravenous formulation of allopregnanolone—a positive allosteric modulator of γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA
) receptors—was approved by the US
A
Food and Drug Administration in 2019 to treat postpartum depression (Powell etal.
2020). Zuranolone, its oral equivalent, was approved in 2023. Brexanolone must be
administered intravenously over 60h and can cause excessive sedation, requiring patients to be hospitalized or treated in specialized settings for about 3 days. A major advantage of zuranolone is that it is taken as a single daily pill for 2 weeks, requiring no active surveillance or specialized in-patient settings. Both brexanolone and zuranolone have rapid onset, differentiating them from traditional antidepres­sants. Zuranolone’s antidepressant efcacy was sustained through day 45 and anxi­ety, global, and maternal functioning were also improved. (Deligiannidis et al.