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3 Strategies in Synthesis of Biodegradable Polymers 71
including regulated protein delivery systems. In 2022, Mosayebi et al. developed a
needleless electrospinning approach to create biodegradable polymers nanofibers
composed of gelatine and Spirulina protein concentration. Because biodegradable
polymers were added, the resulting biodegradable nanofibers had higher antioxidant
activity than pure gelatine nanofibers. Furthermore, the electrospun biodegradable
nanofibers demonstrated ultrafast dissolving pr
highlighting their potential use in applicati
operties in an aqueous media,
ons requiring rapid dissolution. Wound
dressings, drug delivery systems, and food packaging materials are just a few of the
biomedical and medicinal uses that could benefit from this novel manufacture
technique and the improved features of the biodegradable composite nanofibers
2022)
(Mosayebi et al.
bers
nanofi
form
starch was developed by Kazemianrad et al. (Kazemianrad et al.
thermal resistance was enhanced through encapsu
. In 2023, a novel method of covering caffeine in multilayered
ed
from
gelatin,
polyvinyl
alcoho
l (PVA), and anionic hydroxyethyl
2023). Caffeine’s
lation when compared to its natural
form. Moreover, the multilayered nanofibers’ reduced caffeine release rate suggests
regulated release features. A non-Fickian diffusion model described the release
process, indicating a complicated interaction between factors affecting the release
kinetic models. This novel encapsulating method has a chance of application in
many different kinds of applications
foods, that call for controlled caffeine
, including cosmetics, drugs, and functional
delivery. In summary, a needleless
electrospinning technique developed enabled the creation of biodegradable micro/
nanofibers. These biodegradable materials exhibited enhanced biological activity
and ultrafast dissolving properties, showing promise for applications in wound
dressings, drug delivery systems, and food packaging materials.
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3 Strategies in Synthesis of Biodegradable Polymers 73
Alper Durmaz received his Master of Science degree in botany
from Ondokuz Mayis University in 2016, and his Ph.D in botany
from Ondokuz Mayis University in 2021. He has currently an
Research Assistant at Artvin Çoruh University, Turkiye. He has
research experience in plant systematic and plant ecology. He has
worked on a variety of projects funded by Ondokuz Mayis University and has published several review and research articles.
Erdi Can Aytar is currently a Research
Assistant in the Department of Horticulture, at Usak University, Türkiye. He received her
Master of Science degree in biology from Gazi University in 2016,
and her Ph.D. in biology from Ondokuz Mayıs University in 2024.
He has research experience in Antioxidant and antimicrobial
activity, cancer, isolation of organic compounds, plant physiology
and germination. He has worked on national and international
projects. He has published several research articles.
İbrahim Mizan Kahyaoğlu is currently an Research Assistant in
the Department of Chemistry, at Ondokuz Mayis University,
Türkiye. He received her Master of Science degree in physical
chemistry from Ondokuz Mayis University in 2023, and he is in
Ph.D. program in analytical chemistry at Ondokuz Mayis University now. He has research experience in drug carrier systems,
nanoparticles, nanocomposites, copolymer blends, heavy metal
detecting, analysis of organic and inorganic compounds. He has
published several research articles and book chapters.
Selcan Karakuş is currently an Associate Professor in the
Department of Chemistry, at Istanbul University-Cerrahpaşa
(IUC), Türkiye. She received her Master of Science degree in
physical chemistry from Istanbul University (IU) in 2006, and
her Ph.D. in physical chemistry from IU in 2011. She has been a
visiting researcher at the University of Massachusetts, Department
of Polymer Science and Engineering. She has research experience
in drug carrier systems, nanoparticles, nanocomposites, nanoemulsion self-assembled polymeric nanostructures, and copolymer blends. She has worked on a variety of projects funded by
IUC and has published several research articles and book chapters.
Probiotic Bacterial Cellulose: A Bio-mediated Nanomaterial for Health Care Applications
Mainak Chaudhuri , Nabanita Saha, and Petr Saha
Abstract
Nanomaterials have been used for various applications in recent years due to their
interesting physiochemical properties. Nevertheless, conventional physical and
chemical ways of synthesizing nanomaterials are expensive and easily result in
hazardous byproduc ts that are hazardous to the environment and public health.
One of the very prominent applications of bio-mediated nanomaterials is in the
field of healthcare applications. These nanomaterials are ideal candidates for drug
delivery, imaging, and thera peutic applications. Additionally, bio-mediated
nanomaterials are promising in antimicrobial therapy. Bacterial cellulose
(BC) shows every characteristic of a biopolymer for healthcare applications,
having a high surface area-to-volume ratio, tunable surface chemistr y, great
water-holding capacity, biocompatibility and biodegradability. The biosynthesis
of BC using Komagataeibacter xylinus is very cost-effective and eco-friendly.
BC itself is a very good biopolymer with wound-healing properties. There are
various probiotic bacteria that have beneficial effects on our health, such as
several Lactobacillus sp. have antimicrobial properties against pathogenic bacteria; Pediococcus pentosaceus have antimicrobial, antioxidant and antitumor
activity. Combining the physiochemical properties of BC as a biopolymer and
the medicinal properties of probiotic bacteria, probiotic bacterial cellulose (PBC)
can be derived as a bio-medi ated nanomaterial for different healthcare
applications. This chapter focuses on different probiotic bacteria and their beneficial effects, derivatives of probiotic bacteria responsible for those effects,
different methodologies of synthesizing PBC by combining BC and probiotic
4
M. Chaudhuri · N. Saha (✉) · P. Saha
Centre of Polymer Systems, University Institute, Tomas Bata University in Zlin, Zlín, Czech
Republic
e-mail: chaudhuri@utb.cz; nabanita@utb.cz; saha@utb.cz
#
The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2025
R. Malviya, S. Sundram (eds.), Sustainable Green Biomaterials As Drug Delivery
Systems, Biomaterials, Bioengineering and Sustainability 1,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-79062-1_4
75
76 M. Chaudhuri et al.
bacteria and their derivatives, and the applications of PBC in different biomedical
applications.
Keywords
Biosynthesis · Nanomaterials · Probiotic bacterial cellulose · Antimicrobial ·
Healthcare
Abbreviations
BC Bacterial cellulose
PBc Probiotic bacterial cellulose
AAD Antibiotic-associated diarrhoea
RCTS Randomized controlled trials
IBS Irritable bowel syndrome
IBD Inflammatory bowel diseases
LGG Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG
SCFAs Short-chain fatty acids
EPS Exopolysaccharides
BSH Bile salt hydrolases
GABA Gamma-aminobutyric acid
GI Gastrointestinal
4.1 Introduction
In recent years, there has been a growing interest in developing novel biomaterials
with multifaceted applications in healthcare. Among these, probiotic bacterial cellulose (PBC) has emerged as a promising bio-mediated nanomaterial with immense
potential for various healthcare applications. Bacterial cellulose (BC) is a biopolymer produced by different acetic acid bacteria like Komagataeibacter xyninus,
where the biopolymer is synthesized through the fermentation process. It possess a
number of unique characteristics as it is very pure (more than plant cellulose, as BC
does not contain lignin and hemicellulose in its structure), has good mechanical
properties and it is easily biodegradable and it is also very biocompatible with living
cells, making BC to be one of the most preferred polymers to be used in biomedical
and healthcare applications. It has been demonstrated that when BC co-cultured with
probiotic bacteria PBC is obtained, which is heralded as the dawn of an entirely new
protocol to utilize the synergism properties of probiotic bacteria and o f BC, which is
an innovative avenue in the scope of advanced pharmaceutical and medical fields.
Several researches have been done on synthesising BC by acetic acid bacteria,
mainly belonging to different Komagataeibacter and Gluconacetobacter strains.
The synthesis process has been extensively optimi zed for industrial-scale production
4 Probiotic Bacterial Cellulose: A Bio-mediated Nanomaterial for Health… 77
in various fields (Gopu and Govindan 2018). These bacteria produce cellulose as a
metabolic byproduct extracellularly in micro or nanofiber form, which then selfassembles into a network-like three-dimensional structure that results in a mechanically sturdy structure with high porosity (Florea et al.
2016). BC become a perfect
polymer for drug delivery systems, wound dressing, tissue engineering, and other
biomedical applications because of its intrinsic properties like high water-holding
capacity (98%), oxygen permeability and its porous structure (Gorgieva and Trček
2019). When probiotic bacteria are introduced into the BC mat, the mat shows
additional therapeutic
functions by increasing its capability for various healthcare
applications.
Probiotics are living microorganisms that upon food intake have many health kick
that they provide in the body. Probiotics are well researched and shown to have
positive effects on gut health, prevention of disease, and immune system support
(Hill et al.
2014). This BC merged with probiotics will generate a synergistic
delivery system possessing beneficial properties of two partners, leading to enhanced
therapeuticsay and targeted delivery of bioactive compounds.
PBC has a wide spectrum of medical applications in areas such as tissue engineering, drug delivery, gut health and wound healing. Compared with those of
traditional medical material s, PBC-based wound dressings show advantages in gas
permeability, moisture-affinity, and biocompatibility (Jayani et al. 2020). Additionally, the dressings with probiotic bacteria build-positive surrounding for wound
healing by bringing in some changes in the local microenvironment to maintain
tissue regeneration and minimize the threaten of infection (Savitskaya et al. 2019).
Resent
researches
found that PBC derived dressings are effective for increasing
wound healing, reducing inflammation and improving healing and other outcomes
(Sabio et al. 2021).
PBC h
right prospects as a probiotic delivery vehicle in the genre of gastroin-
as b
testinal health. BC as a defensive barrier protects probiotic bacteria to get harsh
gastrointestinal environment, so probiotic bacteria can easy to alive and accurately
arrive in intestines(Singh et al. 2018; Jayani et al. 2020). This is of particular benefit
in enhancing the effectiveness of probiotic interventions in conditions such inflammatory bowel disease, irritable bowel syndrome and antibiotic-associated diarrhoea
(Wang e t al. 2022)
n addition, the sustained release of probiotics from PBC
. I
matrices enables the longer residence of probiotics in the intestine consequently,
enhancing the therapeutic effect of probiotics and promoting the homeostasis of the
gut microbiota (Savitskaya et al. 2024).
Together with
its applications in wound healing an d gastrointestinal treatments,
PBC has gained interest as a prospective substrate for controlled drug delivery and
tissue repair. The inherently porous nature or BC serves as a ready-made vehicle for
containing and prolonging the release of any number of bioactive payload, including
pharmaceutical agents, growth factors, and signalling molecules. By incorporating
probiotic bacteria into those framework, PBC-based drug delivery strategies can be
sculpted to exhibit major imploring functionalities like site-specific delivery to
tissues or disease loci (Yang et al.
2024).
In addition, the good biocompatibility
and mechanical properties of PBC also make it an ideal scaffold material for tissue-
78 M. Chaudhuri et al.
engineering applications by providing a micro-environment that supports cell proliferation, growth, and differentiation (Pang et al.
2020). Inclusion of probiotic bacteria
in PBC substrates offers an added advantage for enhancing their healing competence, by promoting epithelial regeneration, balancing the local immune response,
and preventing infections (Gregory et al. 2021).
Known as a probiotic bacterial cellulose (PBC), this multifunctional biofabricated
nanomaterial presents profound opportunities for their use in healthcare. The integration of unique properties of bacterial cellulose with the beneficial features of
probiotic bacteria makes PBC an integrated platform for advanced therapeutic
approaches for wound healing, gastrointestinal health, drug delivery, and tissue
engineering. The realm of exploration and improvisation in this area seems advantageous such that eventually, the PBC-centric discoveries could be moved towards
clinical application inspiring novel interventions for multiple health demands.
Bacterial cellulose (BC) as well as probiotic cellulose exhibit significant
advantages with respect to cost-effectiveness and environmental sustainability for
medical application. So it is very important to their ecological sustainability that they
are produced through controlled bacterial fermentation. Probiotic cellulose and BC
are eco-friendly since they are produced from natural sources rather than the
petrochemicals used in the production of synthetic materials (Ma et al. 2020).
Compared to conventional production techniques, BC and probiotic cellulose
require less resources and are low-waste production. Probiotic bacteria could use
various agricultural waste streams or by-products as a substrate in turn reducing the
ecological burden of those materials. We are thus providing an ideal solution for
environmentally sustainable cellulose synthesis, employing probiotic bacteria
(Abdelraof et al. 2019).
Due to the relatively easy process of production as well as the abundance of raw
materials, BC and PBC can be produced in large amount, facilitating their application as cost-effective alternatives compared to synthetic biomaterials in many cases.
If synthetic media is not available BC and PBC can be produced through fermentation process, using cheap alternative nutrient sources and equipment (Kamal et al.
2022).
C a
Both B
nd probiotic bacterial cellulose have appeared as well-suited materials
for a variety of healthcare applications due to their ecofriendly and cheaper nature.
These materials offer long-term solutions, focusing on environmental and budget
concerns, which are an ever-increasing frenzy.
The next
chapter describes the physical and chemical properties of BC and
Probiotic BC, the bacteria cellulose producer matrix and the production protocols,
as well as probiotic bacteria and their benefits. It further delineates different
techniques of Probiotic BC synthesis as well as Healthcare applications of
Probiotic BC.
4 Probiotic Bacterial Cellulose: A Bio-mediated Nanomaterial for Health… 79
4.2 Probiotic Bacterial Cellulose and Bacterial Cellulose
Bacterial cellulose (BC), a natural biomaterial, is produced by some specific bacterial species, mostly from some Komagataeibacter and Gluconacetobacter strains
(Ullah et al.
chemical composition from the plant-derived cellulose. BC is made up of linear
chains made up of β-(1 → 4)-linked D-glucose units same as plant cellulose. Due to
the absence of hemicelluloses, lignin, or other non-cellulosic compounds in BC, it is
purer and crystalline compared to plant cellulose (Naomi et al. 2020).
The cellulose synthase complexes embedded within the bacterial cell membrane
facilitate the extracellular synthesis of BC. These complexes catalyze the polymerization of glucose molecules from UDP-glucose precursors, resulting in the formation of cellulose chains that assemble into microfibrils. BC is discharged into the
surroundings as a gel-like membrane, where it self-assembles into a network of
nanofibrils. This process differs from plant cellulose production, which occurs
internally within the cell and is subsequently deposited in the cell wall (Mensah
et al. 2022).
BC is composed of nanofibrous chains in a regularly arranged highly crystalline
microfibril morphology. The chains repack and form crystallites, which are the
crystalline regions of BC with high order and alignment, leading to strong intermolecular hydrogen bonds and mechanical properties. The amorphous areas, represent
the more disordered areas interspersed into these structure and are like ly to be
responsible for the elasticity and the ability of the BC to deform (Jia et al. 2017).
Several characteristics of BC for instance, structure and properties, are vastly
influenced by different factors such as bacterial strain, culture conditions, and postsynthesis treatments. Typically, things like the type of carbon source (glucose or
glycerol) culture medium affect BC’s molecular weight, crystallinity, and porosity.
During fermentation, the temperature, pH alteration, and agitation can also induce
modifications in the morphology and order of arrangement of BC nanofibrils.
The c
treatment to introduce functional group besides to improve its compatibi lity to the
foreign material. Periodate and TEMPO-mediated oxidation introduce aldehyde or
carboxyl groups on BC that could allow for the chemical modification or polymer
cross-linking (Luo et al. 2013). However, the amorphous fraction of BC can be
removed by an enzymatic degradation via cellulases or hemicellulases followed by
improving its crystallinity and mechanical properties.
The nanofibrous structure is the most characteristic physical property of
BC. Compared to that it is composed of a highly o rganized nanocellulose network
of entangled fibers with diameters in the range of 20–100 nm (Park et al. 2023). This
nanofibrous structure gives BC superior mechanical properties and tensile strength
over plant cellulose and synthetic polymers (Yao et al. 2017). Moreover, the high
aspect ratio of BC nanofibres gives rise to a number of interesting optical properties,
including transparency and birefringence, which in turn is useful for optical
applications, e. g., photonics and displays.
2016, 2017). It can be distinguished by its specific structure and
hemic
al inte grity of BC could be enhanced with chemical or enzyme
80 M. Chaudhuri et al.
In addition, BC shows excellent water holding capacity and liquid absorption
properties due to its high surface area and hydrophilicity. It was considered that BC
is an excellent candidate for use as a polymer in wound dressings and skin care
preparations because of its ability to hold large quantities of water and absorb it
when necessary, such as to maintain a moist wound environment and promote
wound healing (Swingler et al.
2021). The porous structure of BC sim ply provides
room for the flow of gases, as wel l as transfer of nutrients, which allows for many
cell adhesion, growth, and tissue regeneration properties in biomedical scaffolds and
implants.
A very important physical property of BC that can be applied to various heatresistant and fireproof products is its heat resistance and flame retardant property.
The high decomposition temperature and low flammability of BC becanse its dense
structure and cellulose content (Torgbo and Sukyai 2020).
Bacterial cellulose can be used in healthcare industry for wound healing (Deng
et al. 2024), tissue engineering (Wang et al. 2023), drug delivery (Ye et al. 2024),
etc. Due to its non-toxicity, biodegradability and biocompatibility (Nayak et al.
2024) this biopolymer is an excellent candidate to accelerate tissue regeneration
and to promote woun d healing. During the usage of BC as a wound dressing
material, a fluid environment is provided which assist in fast healing along with
prevents the wound from a potential pathogen infection (Palem et al.
2024).
Also, the incorporation of probiotic bacteria into BC matrices will offer further
therapeutic advantages which will therefore enhance the potential of BC in
healthcare applications. Probiotics are live microorganisms that provide similar
health benefits when an adequate amount of them are ingested. Several studies
have been conducted to see how they can help maintain gut health and strengthen
immunity as well as prevent against a wide array of diseases (Varela-Trinidad et al.
2022).
mmobil
The i
ization of a broad range of probiotic bacteria in BC mats offers
several advantages. The cellulose matrix protects the probiotic bacteria mainly in
two ways. First, by providing a prote ctive environment which isolates the probiotic
bacteria from adverse conditions (e.g. from the effect of enzymes in the gut or the
low pH in the stomach), so they can survive and maintain their stability. This
entrapment allows the PBC mat to precisely release probiotics, creating a sustained
delivery system to the intestines across a long time frame due to the porous structure
of bacterial cellulose (Jayani et al. 2020; Oliveira-Alcântara et al. 2020). Probiotic
bacteria also release molecules , such as bacteriocins, short-chain fatty acids, butyrate
and polyphosphate with health beneficial properties of antibacterial and immunostimulatory and anti-inflammatory and anti-cancerogenic activities (George Kerry
et al. 2018). The capability of those compounds to be entrapped in the BC network
enables the development of functional material with selective health benefits by
performing with specific probiotic bacteria.
This synergy of bacterial cellulose and probiotic bacteria provides new horizons
for healthcare applications. For example, some probiotic-incorporated BC dressing
may help not only in the wound healing process but also may fight against the
pathogenic bacteria in the wound bed, and therefore mitigate the risk of infection in
4 Probiotic Bacterial Cellulose: A Bio-mediated Nanomaterial for Health… 81
the wound. Likewise, bacterial cellulose formulations along with probiotic bacteria,
may provide greater efficiency in the treatment of intestinal disorders due to the
capacity to enhance probiotic survival and colonization in the gastrointestinal tract
after oral administration (Martín et al.
2013).
4.3 Producers of Bacterial Cellulose
The production of bacterial cellulose involves several specialized bacterial strains,
cultured under controlled condit ions to yield this valuable biomaterial. Producers of
bacterial cellulose play a very important role in the fermentation process to synthesize this green biomaterial, useful in various industries. Among several other BC
producing bacteria, the following bacterial strains are mainly involved in the synthesis of BC:
Komagataeibacter xylinus The previously named Gluconacetobacter xylinum,
now called Komagataeibacter xylinus, is mainly used for its ability for the production of BC, a unique biopolymer applied in different fields of technology. BC is
synthesized by K. xylinus through the fermentation process. In the process, it
converts the carbon sources, that are present in the culture media (mainly glucose)
into cellulose chains. The cellulose chains are secreted out of the bacterial cells as a
metabolic byproduct and spontaneously assemble among themselves in a special
architecture as nanofibers are organized in dense networks. Factors such as pH,
temperature, oxygen availability and nutrient composition, have been shown to
influence to what extent K. xylinus is able to synthesize BC. These and other related
parameters might be optimized in order to determine the possibility of yield and
quality of BC. It has various important properties like mechanical strength, high
purity, porosity and water retention capacity, which makes it an essential biopolymer
in various industries (Bilgi et al. 2016; Volova et al. 2018).
Acetobacter pasteurianus Acetobacter pasteurianus bacteria are also a well-
established strain for producing bacterial cellulose. The remarkable celluloseproducing abilities of this bacteria (high cellulose yield) actually makes it a good
candidate for industrial scale production of BC - promoting the commercialization of
good bacterial cellulose based products in general (Kumar et al. 2019).
Gluconacetobacter hansenii This bacterial strain is renowned for its outstanding
ability to grow in different environments and the high-level production of cellulose.
The use of this bacteria for BC production will enable the growth of BC under
different circumstances enabling BC to be a factory-level biopolymer for the usage
in industries (Gromovykh et al. 2017).
Komagataeibac
the BC producing bacteria that synthesizes BC by using different carbon source such
as sucrose, one of the main part element in horticultural loss. Therefore, this microbe
ter sucrofermentans Komagataeibacter sucrofermentansis one of