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Файл:Ординатура / Хирургия / Библиотека им академика М.И. Перельмана / Книга_5911_Библиотеки_им_академика_М_И_Перельмана.pdf
214 S. Verma et al.
Dr. Rishabha Malviya completed B. Pharmacy from Uttar
Pradesh Technical University and M. Pharmacy (Pharmaceutics)
from Gautam Buddha Technical University, Lucknow Uttar
Pradesh. His PhD (Pharmacy) work was in the area of Novel
formulation development techniques. He has 13 years of research
experience and presently working as Associate Professor in the
Department of Pharmacy, School of Medical and Allied Sciences,
Galgotias University since past 10 years. His area of interest
includes formulation optimization, nanoformulation, targeted
drug delivery, localized drug delivery and characterization of
natural polymers as pharmaceutical excipients. He has authored
more than 170 research/review papers for national/international
journals of repute. He has 58 patents (19 grants, 38 published,
1 filed) and publications in reputed National and International
journals with total of 240 cumulative impact factor. He has also
received an Outstanding Reviewer award from Elsevier. He has
authored/edited/editing 50 books (Wiley, CRC Press/Taylor and
Francis, Springer, IOP Publishing, River Publisher, Apple aca-
demic Press/Taylor and Francis Groups and OMICS publication)
and authored 123 book chapters. His name has included in word’s
top 2% scientist list for the year 2020, 2021, 2022 and 2023 by
Elsevier BV and Stanford University. He is Reviewer/Editor/Edi-
torial board member of more than 50 national and international
journals of repute. He has invited as author for “Atlas of Science”
and pharma magazine dealing with industry (B2B) “Ingredient
south Asia Magazines”.
Lavanya Gupta completed her Bachelor’s in Biochemistry Hons
in 2018 from Sri Venkateswara College, University of Delhi, New
Delhi. Afterward, she completed her Master’s from All India
Institute of Medical Sciences (AIIMS), New Delhi, in 2023.
During her master’s, she identified the Estrogen-regulated
miRNA network in the Human trophoblast invasion process and
its correlation with Gestational trophoblast disorders like pre-
eclampsia. She joined Prof Bibli’s lab in 2024 exploring novel
cysteinolytic regulators. She has worked with large datasets to
obtain differentially regulated genes in the pathology of
pregnancy-related disorders, i.e. preeclampsia. She worked with
various databases, R programming language, and software
packages to identify novel genes and their association with disease
pathophysiology. She have used many databases such as MsigDB,
Target scan, mirDB, mirtarBase, RNA22 version 2.0, Agilent,
miRDeep2 (software package), R/Bioconductor package Edge R,
R package gplots, Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes
(KEGG) database. During her PhD at Heidelberg University at the
faculty of Biosciences, she will focus on identifying novel
regulators of cysteinolysis within endothelial cells which are
regulated by two enzymes named cystathionine beta-synthase
(CBS) and cystathionine gamma-lyase (CSE).
8 Green Approach for Synthesizing Silk Fibroin Biomaterial Scaffolds 215
Dr. Sathvik Belagodu Sridhar is currently working as an Asso-
ciate Dean and Professor at RAK College of Pharmacy
(RAKCOP), RAK Medical and Health Sciences University
located in Ras Al Khaimah, United Arab Emirates. Dr. Sathvik
has completed his Ph.D. in Clinical Pharmacy from Rajiv Gandhi
University of Health Sciences, Bangalore, India. He has received
an FIP fellowship for higher training in renal clinical pharmacy at
Royal Adelaide Hospital and Queen Elizabeth Hospital in
Adelaide, South Australia. Dr. Sathvik has worked as an Assistant
Professor and Clinical Pharmacist at JSS College of Pharmacy and
JSS Medical College Hospital, Mysore, India, for eight years and
later Joined International Medical University (IMU) Malaysia as a
senior lecturer in the Department of Pharmacy Practice from
2008 to 2010. Dr. Sathvik joined as an assistant professor in the
Department of Clinical Pharmacy at RAK College of Pharmacy,
RAK Medical, and Health Sciences University in 2010 and
worked as a professor and chairperson of the Department of
Clinical Pharmacy and Pharmacology from 2018 to 2023.
Dr. Sathvik has been honored with a prestigious teacher award
by the Society of Pharmaceutical Education & Research [SPER].
He has also received training in Pharmacovigilance at the Uppsala
Monitoring Centre in Uppsala, Sweden. Dr. Sathvik has 25 years
of experience teaching and practicing clinical pharmacy in India,
Ma
and the UAE. His research interests include Medication
laysia,
Safety, Pharmacovigilance, Pharmacoepidemiology, and Renal
and Psychiatry Clinical Pharmacy. Dr. Sathvik has more than
75 research papers published in reputable national and international journals, along with book chapters. He has presented more
than 75 research papers at numerous national and international
conferences and has been honored with many awards. He also
serves as a reviewer for various national and internal pharmacy
practice-related journals.
Green Catalysts in the Synthesis of Biomaterials for Biomedical Applications
9
Murugiah Krishani , Nonni Soraya Sambudi
,
and Hazwani Suhaimi
Abstract
Green chemistry witnessed an enhanced development in making green catalysts
by reducing the usage of toxic substances and harnessing renewable resources.
Sustainable materials from bio sources, light sources, nano sources, and
heteropolyacids act as green catalysts and exhibit potential candidates for
synthesizing biomaterials for biomedical applications. This chapter highlights
the use of various green catalysts in synthesizing biomaterials for biomedical
purposes, including biosensors in clinical diagnosis, drug delivery, tissue engineering, wound healing, polymer coatings and inks for bioprinting. This chapter
then discusses the methods involved in synthesizing green catalyst sources of
green catalyst and finally concludes with future perspectives.
Keywords
Green catalyst · Biomaterials · Biomedical applications · Biosensors · Drug
delivery · Tissue engineering · Wound healing · Polymer coating and bioprinting
M. Krishani (✉) · H. Suhaimi
Faculty of Integrated Technologies, Universiti Brunei Darussalam, Jalan Tungku Link, Gadong,
Brunei
e-mail: 20h8400@ubd.edu.bn; hazwani.suhaimi@ubd.edu.bn
N. S. Sambudi
Department
e-mail: nonni.ss@universitaspertamina.ac.id
#
The
R. Malviya, S. Sundram (eds.), Sustainable Green Biomaterials As Drug Delivery
Systems, Biomaterials, Bioengineering and Sustainability 1,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-79062-1_9
of Chemical Engineering, Universitas Pertamina, Simprug, Jakarta, Indonesia
Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2025
217
218 M. Krishani et al.
Abbreviations
AgNO3 Silver nitrate
aNSCs Adult neural stem cells
AuNPs Gold nanoparticles
BET Brunauer-Emmett-Teller
Bio-MOFs Bio-metal organic frameworks
BMSCs Bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells
BP Black phosphorus
CD Carbon dot
CD11a α chain of the αLβ2 integrin
CNT Carbon nanotubes
CNTpega Carbon nanotubes poly ethylene glycol acrylate
Co
3O4
COD Choline oxidase
COOH Carboxyl group
COX-1 Cyclooxygenase - 1
COX-2 Cyclooxygenase - 2
DNA Deoxyribonucleic acid
ECM Extracellular matrix
EDC 1-ethyl-3-(3-dimethylaminopropyl)-carbodiimide hydrochloride
F Fluorine
Fe2O3 Ferric oxide
Fe3O4 Black iron oxide
FeNi3 Iron;nickel
FN Fibronectin
GAG Glycosaminoglycans
GO Graphene oxide
GR Graphene
Gtn-HPA Gelatin-hydroxyphenyl propionic acid
O Water
H
2
H
2O2
H
2SO4
HLC Human-like collagen
HPA Heteropolyacids
HRP Horse radish peroxidase
MAS Microwave-aided synthesis
MCM-41 Mobil Crysta lline Materials
MTT (3-(4,5-Dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-Diphenyltetrazolium Bromide)
MOF Metal-organic framework
MoS2 Molybdenum disulfide
Na
2CO3
NH
2
NHS
Cobalt oxide
Hydrogen peroxide
Sulphuric acid
Sodium carbonate
Amine functional group
N-hydroxys
uccinimide
9 Green Catalysts in the Synthesis of Biomaterials for Biomedical Applications 219
NiFe Nickel–iron alloy
NiFe
2O4
Nickel ferrite
NIR Near-infrared
NO
3
Nitrate ion
NPs Nanoparticles
O Oxygen
OH Hydroxyl group
OPF Oligo(poly(ethylene glycol) fumarate
PCL Polycaprolactone
PDLSCs Proliferation, adherence, and viability of human periodontal ligament
mesenchymal stem cells
PDT Photodynamic therapy
PEG Polyethylene glycol
PTT Photothermal therapy
RNA Ribonucleic acid
ROS Reactive oxygen species
SBA-15 Santa Barbara Amorphous
SiO2 Silicon dioxide
Ti Titani um
TiO2 Titanium dioxide
TMDCs Transition metal dichalcogenides
TPABr Tetrapropylammonium bromide
WDH Wound dressing hydrogel
ZSM-5 Zeolite Socony Mobil–5
9.1 Introduction
Green chemistry involves inventing chemicals and protocols or procedures using
environmentally friendly methods. The main goals of green chemistry are the
minimum exhaustion of natural sources, waste reduction, energy conservation, and
the reduction of non-toxicities. The catalysts developed to fulfil the requirements of
green chemistry by being selective, efficient and, most importantly, environmentally
friendly are termed green catalysts. Thus, green chemistry and green catalysts
correlate (Chhangani
2016).
non-hazardous renewable starting materials, provide high efficiency, are non-toxic,
and yield minimal byproducts (Shoda et al. 2016). Research on using greener
materials in chemi cal synthesis has become a focus in the past few decades. This
idea from green chemistry accelerates profitable pharmaceutical or chemical production and reduces waste generation (Rai and Gupta 2021). Many researchers are
focused on developing toxic and solvent-free synthetic pathways affordably to
utilize green catalysts in the biomedical sector. Green catalysts can also yield
Green catalysts are sustainable, produced from
220 M. Krishani et al.
biomaterial and biopolymers used in biomedical applications due to their environmentally benign and accuracy (Gildner and Colacot
Biomaterial is a material developed to interact with biological systems to
improve, treat, or replace damaged tissue or organs. Bioma terial should be biocompatible and biodegradable. Various biomaterials are being developed from different
sources. These biomaterials are used in biomedical applications, including medical
treatment like repairing tendons and ligaments, wound healing and cancer therapy,
tissue engineering, human body parts manufacturing, preparation of bio-inks for bio
printing and biosensors in clinical diagnosis. Biomaterials are produced using green
technology or taken from biological substances, so they are environmentally friendly
(Krishani et al.
from oil refining to pharmaceutical production. The catalyst speeds up the reaction
by decreasing the activation energy. Catalysts also marked their footprints in biomaterial synthesis for biomedical applications, including diagnosis, therapeutics and
regenerative medicine. As mentioned, the catalysts produced using greener technology and creating less environmental impact are termed green catalysts. Materials
from bio sources include enzymes, microorganisms, and biomass-based materials.
Materials from nanotechnology include metal and metal oxide nanoparticles; 2D
nanomaterials like graphene, black phosphorous, MXene and transition metal
dichalcogenides; porous nanomaterials like zeolite, metal-organic framework
(MOF) and mesoporous silica nanomaterials and heteropolyacids, are widely used
as a green catalyst in the synthesis of biomaterial for biomedical application. High
acidity, redox activity, stability, efficiency, selectivity, high surface area, ease of
functional group modification, strong electrical conductivity, high tensile strength,
and biocompatible and non-toxic properties make the materials mentioned above
green catalysts. It also catalyzes some reactions like hydrogenation, oxidation,
esterification and dehydration (Zhang et al. 2019b; Mokhtar et al. 2022; Khalaf
et al. 2024; Gómez-lópez et al. 2020; Park et al. 2023; Amiryaghoubi et al. 2023).
This chapter highlights how green catalysts are applied in synthesizing biomaterial for biomedical purposes, including biosensors in clinical diagnosis, drug delivery, tissue engineering, wound healing, polymer coatings and inks for bioprinting.
With this chapter, we desire to give an overview to help researchers grasp the
requirements of sophisticated biomedical applications and expand the implementation of green catalysts to synthesize novel biomaterial for biomedical applications.
2023a; Biswal et al. 2020). Catalysts are crucial in many industries,
2015; Tao and Xu 2009).
9.2 Green Catalyst and Its Classification
Catalysts developed using renewable materials and non-hazardous substances in an
environmentally sustainable way are termed green catalysts. Sustainable materials,
including photocatalyst, biocatalyst, nanocatalyst and heteropolyacids, act as green
catalysts (Fig. 9.1).
9 Green Catalysts in the Synthesis of Biomaterials for Biomedical Applications 221
Fig. 9.1 Types of green
catalysts
9.2.1 Green Catalyst from the Light Source
Light is the ideal component to create environmentally friendly chemical processes.
Photosynthesis is the process by which organisms such as bacteria, algae, and plants
convert solar energy into carbohydrates, hydrogen, and oxygen through complex
chemical reactions (Dogutan and Nocera 2019). Nature has created effective light
garner systems and energy metamorphosis mechanisms that ladle out as researchers’
templates. Replicating and applying such complexity in biomedical applications is
challenging. Understanding and synthesizing biological processes is therefore crucial (Bigham et al. 2024).
Photocat
alysts u
targeted drug release, improved tissue renewal, and accurate visualization of
biological structures. Biomimetic and bio-inspired photocatalysts are valuable in
biomedicine due to their therapeutic potential and environmental benefits. Biomimetic photocatalytic nanomaterials can serve multiple functions, notably for therapeutic use and regeneration, by relea sing inorganic ions. Using biomimetic and
bio-inspired photocatalytic substances in tissue renewal yields healing and revival
results. In bone or skin cancer treatment, light-responsivity can eliminate malignant
cells and release thera peutic ions to promote tissue regeneration (Bigham et al. 2024;
S
s et al. 2020; Levin et al. 2020).
trataki
Photocatalysts
dioxide or zinc oxide, which absorb light energy and stimulate electrons. Excited
electrons can combine with other molecules, forming new compounds. Nanoparticles that exhibit semiconducting properties such as light absorbance, charge
relocation, and advantageous electronic organization are called nanophotocatalysts.
Nanophotocatalysts can produce reactive oxygen species (ROS) when exposed to
se light energy to operate chemical processes, resulting in
often originate from semiconducting precursors like titanium
222 M. Krishani et al.
light. ROS are very reactive chemicals that can cause various biological
consequences, including cell death. This feature has been used to produce photodynamic therapy (PDT), a non-invasive therapeutic method that uses light activation of
nano photocatalysts to select and kill malignant cells specifically. PDT has
demonstrated encouraging outcomes in several forms of cancer, presenting a possible substitute or supplement to established therapy techniques (Fo
You et al. 2020). Green
photoactive nanoparticles can be produced using various
oladi et al.
2023;
biotic origins, including microbes and plants. This synthesis technique is sustainable,
biocompatible, and economical (Hassaan et al. 2023). Nanophotocatalysts from the
biogenic method display excellent catalytic activity while eradicating costly and
hazardous chemicals (Agarwal et al. 2017; Abdul Salam et al. 2014).
9.2.2 Green Catalyst from Bio Source
Enzymes are one type of bio source catalyst. Enzymes work as natural catalysts in
living things to speed up particular chemical reactions. Self-assembled structures are
generally formed via enzyme-regulated processes under perpetual circumstances.
Enzymatic reactions are one of the primary biotic mechanisms that create macromolecular hydrogel networks for biomedical purposes. These enzymatic mechanisms
offer a distinctive opportunity to incorporate hydrogel fabrication. Due to the
enzymes’ stereo-, regio-, and chemo-selectivity, enzyme catalysis is commonly
used to modify the structure and substrates of hydrogels. When processed with
diverse enzyme schemes, hydrogels demonstrated outstanding properties as dynamic
frames for cells, bioactive compounds, and pharmaceuticals in tissue engineering,
drug delivery, and regenerative medicine. Enzyme-mediated crosslinking hydrogels
mimic extracellular matrices by exhibiting distinct physicochemical properties and
functionalities such as bioactivity, biostability, biocompatibility, biodegradability,
water retention capacity, optoelectronic properties, shape memory ability, and selfhealing ability (Badali et al. 2021). Enzymes like horse radish peroxidase are
catalysts used in bio-printing (Kotani et al. 2023).
Microorgani
catalytic particles, such as nanoparticles (NPs). So, microbes can act as a green
catalyst in the production process. Bacteria have their systems for living and
sustenance uptake that allow them to thrive and multiply. They may reduce metallic
compounds and use the energy for themselves. Bacteria have evolved defence
mechanisms such as internal sequestration, altering metal ion concentrations,
pumping efflux and extracellular precipitation to deal with varied challenges.
These bacterial methods can be used in the biogenic synthesis of nanoparticles.
Bacterial strains of Lactobacillus sp., Escherichia coli, Acinetobacter calcoaceticus,
Bacillus licheniformis, Bacillus amyloliquefaciens, Pseudomonas stutzeri and Bacillus megaterium were used to synthesize silver nanoparticles (Ali et al. 2020)
Ascomycetes (Microscopic filamentous fungi) are tolerant of heavy metals and
can internalize and bioaccumulate them. As a result, these organisms were used to
reduce and stabilize NPs throughout their production processes (Šebesta et al. 2023).
, including bacteria and fungi, can produce enzymes or other
sms
.
9 Green Catalysts in the Synthesis of Biomaterials for Biomedical Applications 223
Microalgae can be used as an effective bionanofactory to produce metallic
nanoparticles by reducing metal ions such as gold and silver. Metal nanoparticles
are readily synthesized from both live and dried microalgae biomass. Several
microalgae, such as Lyngbya majuscule (Duraisamy et al.
2020), Spirulina platensis
(Rashad et al. 2019), and Chlorella vulgaris (Mahajan et al. 2019), have been used
for silver nanoparticle synthesis.
Biomass-derived materials are either from carbohydrates or proteins; hence, they
contain the repeating units of saccharides or amino acids that are biocompatible and
biodegradable, making them ideal for biomedical purposes. Proteins and carbohydrate biomass-derived material possess -NH
-OH and –COOH as functional
2,
groups in their configurations. These features of bioactive moieties enable
crosslinking of biomass materials with polymers and metal ions, as well as chemical
grafting of biomolecules, resulting in versatile functions such as printability, selectivity, and sensitivity for biomedical applications. Chitosan, cellulose, lignin, gelatin
and alginate are some biomass-derived materials used as biosource catalysts
(Li
2019). Egg white is a catalyst for synthesizing phenothiazinium Schiff base
and its nano silver complex. Synthesized compounds displayed excellent
antibacterial activity against Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli strains
(El-Kebir et al. 2016).
Nanocellulose, a renewable, nanoscaled cellulose fibril generated from plant cell
walls, has emerged as a promising candidate in the search for perfect catalysts. With
a large surface area, outstanding mechanical strength, and simplicity of chemical
modification, its usage in catalytic processes offers a sustainable and efficient
substitute for traditional catalysts (Thomas et al. 2018). Hydroxyapatite is a biomineral in the bone that acts as a green catalyst due to its multifunctionality and high
flexibility (Yook et al. 2023). Hydroxyapatite is widely used in bone tissue engi-
neering, and it can b e synthesized from calcium-rich materials, counting waste shells
(Murugiah et al. 2021; Krishani et al. 2023b).
9.2.3 Green Catalyst from Nanotechnology
Nanotechnology is a potential field for addressing various public health concerns.
Nanoparticles are extensively utilized in tissue renewal and medicine because of
their distinctive characteristics, including physiochemical rigidity, expanded surface
area, and being toxic-free and biocompatible (Bharathala and Sharma 2019). Metal
and metal oxide nanoparticles have been the most extensively researched material
groups. Countless studies have found that metals and metal oxide nanoparticles have
considerable therapeutic advantages. These advantages lead to their use in various
sectors, including biosensors, drug delivery systems, diagnostic imaging
applications, and scaffolds for tissue engineering (Yaqoob et al.
2022). Using natural plant extracts to synthesize inorganic NPs is straightforward,
cheap, and environmentally benign. Specifically, extracts from leaves, seeds, roots,
flowers, and fruits were employed. Plant extracts have gained popularity for their
capacity to decrease and stabilize metal nanoparticles in a single step, harnessing
2020; Nadaf et al.
224 M. Krishani et al.
their natural properties. Plant extracts contain terpenoids, alkaloids, saponins,
flavonoids, tannins, and steroids, stabilizing and reducing agents (Ishak et al.
2019). Metals like gold (Au) and silver (Ag) NPs are the most commonly utilized
in the catalytic sector due to their catalytic solid reduction, antimicrobial, and
optoelectronic capabilities (Ahmed et al. 2017). For example, Folorunso et al.
developed AuNPs using Annona muricata leaf extracts (Folorunso et al.
Moreno-Luna
synthesized gold nanoparticles using a quick, unique and straightfor-
2019).
ward approach using an aqueous extract from Agave potatorum (Moreno-L una et al.
2019). Anandan et al. synth esized silver nanoparticles from Dodonaea viscosa
aqueous leaf extract and showed effective inhibition against developing A549
NSCLC cancer cells (Anandan et al. 2019). Nabi et al. synthesized TiO
nanoparticles from cinnamon powder using an environmentally friendly green
method and showed excellent photocatalytic properties (Nabi et al. 2020).
Two-dimensional (2D) biomaterials, as a unique nano platform with planar
topology, have sparked interest in sectors such as biomedicine over the last decade
due to their distinct arrangement, physicochemical properties, and biological effects.
Motivated by graphene’s success in biomedicine, hundreds of ultrathin 2D
biomaterials have found diverse bio-applicati ons, including biosensing, biomedical
imaging, therapeutic agent delivery, cancer therapeutics, and tissue engineering
(Huang et al.
2021)
. B
iomaterials comprise several biomolecules, including
polysaccharides, amino acids, proteins, peptides, enzymes, lipids, DNA, RNA and
lipids. Adsorption of biomolecules onto the surface of nanoparticles is a ubiquitous
process in nature (Du et al.
2019. 2022). 2D materials exhibit extraordinary surface
sensitivity. Biomolecules bind to the surface and edge of 2D materials, enhancing
their proper ties and applications. Biomolecules vary in shape and size, with more
complex designs. Biomolecules interact with 2D materials, leading to numerous
possibilities for generating biomaterials with distinct functionality (Ji et al. 2019;
Wang et al. 2021b). Graphene, black phosphorus, Mxenes, and transition metal
dichalcogenides (TMDCs) are well-known 2D materials used in biomedical
applications (Wang et al. 2021a, b).
Graphene (GR)
was used to create scaffolds for tissue engineering. GR is a highly
effective material for tissue engineering because of its wide surface area, strong
electrical conductivity, high tensile strength, and ease of functional group modification. Graphene oxide (GO) and biocomposites have been used to promote
chondrogenesis in mesenchymal stem cells. GR/GO-based materials may serve as
a planar culture platform for stem cell differentiation, increasing interest in articular
tissue engineering and regeneration. GO may stimulate growth factors and proteins.
It can transport chondrogenic chemicals, such as fibronectin (FN) and transform
growth factor-β3 through electron clouds π-π bonding, facilitating stem cell differentiation and proliferation. Furthermore, GR can stimulate the expression of
biomolecules such as aggrecan, collagen II, and glycosaminoglycans (GAG),
resulting in improved extracellular matrix (ECM) composition. As a result,
GR-based materials are extremely useful in cartilage and articular tissue engineering
applications (Amiryaghoubi et al.
2023).
2