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102 M.
published in international peer-reviewed scientific journals
(recorded in Scopus and Web of Science database). In 2012, her
research work was nominated for ENI Award-2013 competition
on ‘Protection of the Environment’. She was associated with
e-COST, MP1301-NEW GEN project (2014–2017) as a working
group (WG) member, CA15216-ENBA project (2016–2020) as an
MC member, CA17107-CONTEXT project (2019–2022) as a WG
member. She is/was involved in many, internal/nationa
national projects
running at the Centre of Polymer Systems, TBU
in Zlin. She is a member of the Polymer Processing Society (PPS)
as well associated with the SPE-European Medical Polymer Division since 2009 as a Board member.
Prof. Petr Saha is the founder of Tomas Bata University in Zlín,
Czech Republic, where he served as Rector for four terms of
office. He currently holds the post of Director of the University
Institute. His expertise includes energy and composite materials.
His professional focus is on energy materials, polymer processes
and medical polymers. Completed his studies at the Faculty of
Technology of the Brno University of Technology, where he also
worked. He was employed at Chalmers University of Technology
in Sweden for more than 10 years. Moreover, he held the office of
Chairman of the Czech Rectors’ Conference. Prof. Sáha is also
active on the international scene at a number of universities (East
China University of Science and Technology, Clemson University
v USA, Ton Duc Thang University in Vietnam and the University
of Palermo in Italy). Between 2005 and 2007, he held the post of
President of the Polymer Processing Society located in the USA,
he focused on the growth of polymer science in the devel-
where
opment world. He was instrumental in the establishment of Bata
Centre in Vietnam, which supports cooperation between
institutions in Vietnam and Czech and European universities. At
present, Prof. Sáha is engaged in research into energy materials
from renewable resources; his team is mainly focusing on the
preparation of components for batteries and supercapacitors from
renewable resources, which will replace critical raw materials in
the future. Prof. Petr Sáha is the author and co-author of
435 publications (with more than 8000 citations on Web of Science and an H-index of 57 as of May 2024) and several dozen
patents, utility models, prototypes and industrial designs.
Chaudhuri et al.
l and inter-
3D Printing and 4D Printing: Sustainable Manufacturing Techniques for Green Biomaterials
5
Oishani Sarkar , Yukta Mourya , K. L. Kavya
Pasupuleti Visweswara Rao and Kanthesh M. Basalingappa
Abstract
The utilization of 3D and 4D printing in biomaterials is reshaping healthcare and
biotechnology, enabling the precise fabrication of intricate tissue structures and
adaptive materials. These technologies offer vast potential for personalized
implants, drug delivery systems, and dynamic structures that respond to environmental changes. Four-dimensional (4D) printing represents a groundbreaking
method for creating advanced materials by integrating existing 3D printing
techniques. The emergence of 3D and 4D printing has revolutionized industrial
processes, with this chapter focusing on sustainable manufacturing methods for
eco-friendly biomaterials using these techniques. It showcases their current
applications and upcoming trends.
The chapter examines both the advantages and challenges of employing
3D and 4D printing for sustainable manufacturing, addressing technical
complexities, fi
directions for sustainable manufacturing, identifying emerging trends, potential
innovations, and areas for further research. Ultimately, the chapter underscores
the transform ative potential of 3D and 4D printing as environmentally friendly
production processes for green biomaterials. Industries can pave the way for a
more sustainable future by harnessing this cutting-edge technology and the
nancial considerations, and legal implications. It outlines future
,
, D. Mutthuraj
,
O. Sarkar (✉) · Y. Mourya · K. L. Kavya · D. Mutthuraj · K. M. Basalingappa
Division of Molecular Biology, School of Life Sciences, JSS Academy of Higher Education &
Research, Mysuru, Karnataka, India
e-mail: mutthurajd@jssuni.edu.in; kantheshmb@jssuni.edu.in; https://vidwan.inflibnet.ac.in/
profile/84555
P. V. Rao
Center for
REVA University, Bangalore, Karnataka, India
#
R. Malviya, S. Sundram (eds.), Sustainable Green Biomaterials As Drug Delivery
Systems, Biomaterials, Bioengineering and Sustainability 1,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-79062-1_5
International Relations and Research Collaborations and School of Applied Sciences,
The Author(s),
under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2025
103
104 O. Sarkar et al.
capabilities of eco-friendly biomaterials, thereby minimizing envir onmental
impact while maximizing efficiency and innovation.
In summary, the introduction provides insights into 3D and 4D printing,
emphasizing their role in environmentally conscious biomaterial production. An
overview of 3D printing explains its principles, processes, and sustainable
applications, while an introduction to 4D printing explores its evolution,
mechanisms, and potential benefits for eco-friendly manufacturing. Subsequently, the chapter delves into the development and history of these techniques,
elucidating why they surpass conventional production methods. Printing
technologies utilizing biomaterials are pivotal for sustainable manufacturing,
with the chapter exploring various types of green biomaterials, sustainability
standards, and eco-friendly alternatives. It also discusses waste reduction
strategies, recycling methods, and energy-efficient practices.
Keywords
3D and 4D printing · Sustainable · Green biomaterials · Carrageenan · Polymers ·
Plant-derived biomaterials
5.1 Introduction
Sustainable manufacturing involves implementing environmentally friendly production methods across various industries. Incorporating eco-friendly manufacturing
practices can enhance resource ef ficiency, decrease waste generation, and optimize
energy usage throughout the production process (Jamwal et al. 2021). In recent
the convergence of sustainable manufacturing and green biomaterials has
times,
emerged as a crucial area of focus in efforts to mitigate environmental impact and
foster eco-friendly practices. Given the prevailing environmental circumstances,
industries globally are compelled to substitute current unsustainable and hazardous
products replacing hydrocarbon-based products like plastic and fuel with renewable,
biodegradable substitutes as the demand for eco-friendly materials rises. Exploring
unused renewable resources becomes essential in this context. Manufacturers are
working towards implementing production methods that decrease their reliance on
non-renewable resources. Consequently, green manufacturing has become prevalent
across various sectors, fueled by an increasing recognition of the adverse environmental and health effects linked to conventional practices (Mosher et al. 2021).
approach is mainly based on utilization of green biomaterials, which are derived
from renewable sources and designed to be biodegradable or recyclable. By
integrating green biomaterials into sustainable manufacturing processes, industries
can significantly lower their carbon footprint and reduce reliance on non-renewable
resources.
Biomaterials are substances, whether natural or engineered, that can serve as
ndational components and engage to experience intended alterations within
fou
biological systems, to repair, reconstruct, restructure, re-establ ish, regenerate,
This
5 3D Printing and 4D Printing: Sustainable Manufacturing Techniques… 105
remodel, redesign structural or functional components (Silva 2019). Green
biomaterials are environmentally sustainable and are derived from diverse biological
sources or manufactured using environmentally friendly technologies (Biswal et al.
2020). Agricultural waste offers abundant lignocellulosic biomass, serving as a
sustainable material for producing a diverse range of bioproducts. Lignocellulosebased bio-composites have been effectively utilized as inks in 3D bio-printing,
versatile substrates for environmental cleanup, medical applications, sustainable
production, and various other uses (Usmani et al.
Numerous biomaterials have been created and refined through 3D bio-printing,
demonstrating their effectiveness as viable alternatives to traditional materials
in various biomedical fields. These environmentally sustainable biom aterials are
effectively utilized in medical interventions including cancer treatment, ligament
and tendon reconstruction, orthopedic procedures, designing contact lenses for
eye care, wound healing, nerve regeneration treatments, breast augmentation, and
manufacturing diverse surgical instruments (Biswal et al.
geometry manufacturing and cost-effective production, 3D printing with
biomaterials simplifies and accelerates detailed prototyping. This enables the precise
printing of scaffolds for tissue regeneration, supporting drug delivery, medical
interventions, tissue engineering, and various biomedical applications, all while
adopting an environmentally sustainable production method (Wang et al.
Although 3D printed co nstructs lack dynamic properties and fail to replicate the
originality of tissues, the emergence of 4D bio-printing allows for controlled conformational changes in printed structures using stimuli-responsive biomaterials. This
capability enables the fabrication of tissue structure undergoing morphological
changes (Nureddin Ashammakhi et al. 2018). The utilization of intelligent biomaterials, like stimuli-responsive nanomaterials designed to sense the surrounding
conditions and react accordingly, will significantly influence bio-printing
procedures. In upcoming years, both 3D bio-printing and 4D bio-printing hold
promise as advanced scaffold fabrication methods. Presently, 4D bio-printing
methodologies are pioneering the development of initial stimuli-responsive, hierarchical, self-morphing and dynamic shape-altering bio-fabricated structures,
employing smart biomaterials such as hydrogels, nanoparticles, and other organic
polymers (Silva 2019).
2021).
2020). Leveraging intricate
2018).
5.2 Fundamentals of 3D and 4D Bioprinting
Klebe first introduced the concept of bioprinting through cell labeling technology in
1908; This technology allows micro positioning of cells to form two-dimensional
(2D) tissues (Ozbola 2016). Several important events simultaneously at the turn of
the century made 3D bioprinting a new field of biomedical domain. In 1986, Charles
Hull pioneered the stereolithography technique with liquid photopolymers. That
same year, Carl Deckard, a graduate student from the University of Austin in
Texas, created the selective laser sintering (SLS) process. Since their inception,
3D printing has become a prevalent biotechnology tool in tissue engineering and
106 O. Sarkar et al.
regenerative medicine. These techniques are celebrated as groundbreaking
advancements in the field of 3D printing.
In 1999, a team led by Anthony Atala at the Wake Forest Institute for Regenera-
tive Medicine used molding technology to create a synthetic human bladder, onto
which patient cells were applied. Although the scaffold wasn’t made using additive
manufacturing technology, these “lab-grown organs” paved the way for bio printed
organs. Tom Boland, who was at Clemson at the time, obtained his first patent in
2003 for a bioprinting method utilizing inkjet technology. Meanwhile, Douglas
Cheesey’s team at the Nava l Research Laboratory used laser technology to print
bioink and mammalian cells into three-dimensional structures.
In 2009, the industry took a significant leap forward when Organovo and Invetech
developed the first commercial bio-printer. Additionally, Wake Forest University
researchers led by Anthony Atala produced printed skin structures, which were the
closest thing to bio-printing functional textiles. Heart valve models and ear-shaped
patterns are examples of recent bioprinting advancements. Finally, in 2014,
Organovo developed the first commercially available liver tissue model using
bioprinting technology (Jose et al. 2016).
4DP technology is a new form of 3DP that integrates time, allowing objects to be
personalized, created or transformed into new forms. MIT’s Skylar Tibbits first
introduced the 4DP concept in 2013. Tibbits illustrated how prints alter shape over
time via a process known as self-assembly (Arif et al.
history, 4D bio-printing has grown significantly in recent years because of the
creation of novel materials appropriate for 4D printing, the research of new
technologies for precise process control, and the exploration of biomedical
applications. Materials used in 4D bio-printing allow spatiotemporal control of the
structure and/or function of structures, whether they contain cells. Using this technology, scientists have created biostructures that can be transformed into incredibly
complex structures that are difficult to create using 3D bio-printing or other methods
(Yang et al. 2020).
2022). Despite its short
5.3 Biomaterials in 3D Bioprinting
The term 3D bio-printing refers to the combination of 3D printing and biology. This
represents the latest advance in additive manufacturing (AM), where biomaterials
are incorporated into biomaterials and then deposited layer by layer (Vanaei et al.
2021; Matai et al. 2020; De Pieri et al. 2020
various bioactive materials to form bionic structures layer by layer or step by step.
The cells resemble normal tissue. The bio-printing method can provide effective
tissue change by controlling the position of hormones, cells, and drugs. In 3D
bio-printing technology, cell graft, cell type, growth, and material selection are
more complex than in 3D printing. The field of 3D bio-printing integrates concepts
of tissue engineering, regenerative medicine, and developmental biology into 3D
printing. It precisely controls configuration diversity, geographic distribution, architectural precision, and complexity. 3D bio-printing can create the microstructure,
structure, material, and biological properties of target tissues and organs. 3D
Printing (3DBP) technology enables
).
5 3D Printing and 4D Printing: Sustainable Manufacturing Techniques… 107
bio-printing for self-healing allows for the controlled delivery of medicines, growth
factors, proteins, DNA, cells, and other bioactive materials to the appropriate tissue
(Arif et al.
The primary printing technologies utilized in 3D bio-printing are inkjet, laser-
assisted, and extrusion. Inkjet bio-printing works by depositing a low-viscosity
solution, such as a cell culture, at a high shear rate, forming droplets approximately
50 μm in size. Laser-assisted bio-printing, on the other hand, focuses the laser on a
layer of biomaterial that a bsorbs the light, resulting in local pressure and ink
deposition. Extrusion-based bio-printing is the simplest and involves the deposition
of cells and bio-inks utilizing pneumatically, pistonally, or screwforce-operated
nozzles. Despite being slower compared to laser and inkjet printing, extrusion
bio-printing offers the capability to deposit patterns and solidify each layer, while
incorporating viable cells. Technology plays a crucial role in achieving successful
deposition in bio-printing. Droplet and inkjet printers operate optimally with
viscosities ranging from 1 to 300 mPa·s, while extrusion-based printers require a
minimum viscosity of 30 × 10^7 mPa·s. Therefore, bioinks with adjustable viscosity
offer the versatility needed to print on various surfaces (Jovic et al. 2019).
Its increasing acceptance is due to its many advantages, including the ability to
create high-performance complex geometries, maximum material savings, and easy
design and customization. Metals, polymers, ceramics, and stones are among the
most utilized materials in 3D printing. Modern metals and alloys are widely
employed in the aerospace sector because traditional methods are laborious, complicated, and costly (Ngo et al. 2018).
The biological materials used in bio-3D printing must be biocompatible, evenly
distributed, and printable. Biomaterials are substances, either natural or synthetic,
employed for repairing or replacing organs within the human body. Metals,
polymers, ceramics, and composites are the four classes based on their chemical
composition. Metals, composites, and ceramics are all very strong materials. However, ceramics and composites are more resistant to corrosion than other materials.
Polymers are more biocompatible and biodegradable than other materials. Synthetic
polymers offer the best materials and designs with fewer limitations. The high
molecular weight of natural polymers limits their solubility and increases their
viscosity. High strength, specific microstructure, and controlled degradation make
synthetic polymers excellent for 3D bio-printing. Hydrolyzed aliphatic polyester is a
popular polymer bio-ink due to its biocompatibility, degradability, and printability
(Vanaei et al. 2021; Matai et al. 2020; De Pieri et al. 2020; Kim et al. 2012; Zhang
et al. 2016; Munaz et al. 2016).
2022; Mudavath and Arvapalli 2023).
5.3.1 Types of Polymers Used in 3D Bioprinting (Fig. 5.1)
5.3.1.1 Synthetic Polymers
Polylactic Acid (PLA)
a hydrolysabl e aliphatic polyester that is widely used as a polymer bioink due
PLA is
to its biocompatibility, degradability, and printability.
108 O. Sarkar et al.
Fig. 5.1 schematic chart representing polymers used in 3D bioprinting
PLA is the primary polymer utilized as a precursor in the FDM process. In
musculoskeletal tissue engineering, PLA filaments can replace ligaments and
non-biodegradable fibers. When PLA breaks down, it forms acidic by-products
that can cause tissue inflammation a nd cell death, compromising its long-term
biocompatibility. The brittleness of PLA reduces its stre ngth compared to bone,
limiting its use. These constraints can be circumvented by mixing them with cheap
ceramic materials like calcium phosphate. It strengthens bones and lowers acid
formation (Vanaei et al., 2021; Garlotta 2001; Guvendiren et al. 2016).
Polyethylene Glycol (PEG)
Radical polymerization yields polyethylene glycol (PEG), a hydrophilic polymer.
The tail group of the structure can be an asymmetric or asymmetric hydroxyl ion, and
it can be straight or branched. Because of its biocompatibility, PEG is frequently
utilized in scaffolds for tissue engineering, drug delivery systems, and surface
modifications that produce ionomers and copolymers that are amphiphilic. PEG is
suitable for hydrogel formation because of its inherent resistance to adherence of
cells and protein adsorption. It is non-biodegradable and has limited mechanical
strength. The C-C polymer backbone contributes to the product’s nonbiodegradability. PEG degradation can occur through hydrolytic and enzymatic
processes (Vanaei et al.
Zhu 2010; Ulbricht et al. 2014).
2021;
5 3D Printing and 4D Printing: Sustainable Manufacturing Techniques… 109
5.4 Polyglycolic Acid (PGA)
Polyglycolic acid (PGA) is widely considered as a key synthetic polymer 3D
architecture due to its chemical diversity, ease of fabrication, biocompatibility, and
biological properties. The biodegradation of PGA produces glycolic acid monomers,
which are removed from the body as carbon dioxide and water through catabolic
pathways. This copolymer can control the corporeal and instinctual properties of
PGA. PGA is utilized to manufacture internal bone repair devices and absorbable
sutures. PDLLA is more hazardous than PGA degradation products. Surface
functionalization of PGA by hydrolysis of ester linkages enhances seed density
and cell spreading. Hydrolysis approaches offer beneficial properties but may be
limited by the reorganization of surface morphology (Vanaei et al.
Gioglio 2014; Liu and Ma 2004).
Biomaterials Based on Marine Resources
1. Carrageenan
Carrageenan is an anionic sulfated polysaccharide that dissolves in water, obtained
by alkaline extraction from red sea algae. The carrageenan is a galactan composed of
alternating chains of b-d-galactose and a-d-galactose, each having a distinct sulfate
group. Seaweed-derived carrageenan is classified into six elements based on the
amount and position of sulfate groups: δ-(kappa), δ-(iota), δ-(lambda), μ-(Mu),
δ-(Nu), and β-(Theta)-carrageenan. The tissue composition of carrageenan is identical to the glycosaminoglycans found in mammalian ECM. Thermogelation and
biocompatibility of κ-carrageenan hydrogel were used to enhance its rheological
properties and create accurate cell scaffolds using 3D bioprinting. κ-carrageenan’s
biocompatibility makes it suit able for use as a biological binder in tissue scaffold
printing. Additionally, methacrylated carrageenan (MA-κ-carrageenan) was gelated
by a sequential cross-linking process (UV and KCl) and showed excellent suitability
for printing cell encapsulation scaffolds. MA-κ-carrageenan hydrogels supported
high survival rates (~75%) of human mesenchymal stem cells (hMSCs) for up to
21 days. These chemical modifications to carrageenan result in new functions and
features, such as improved physicochemical properties and photo-crosslinking
capabilities for SLA-based 3D bioprinting in the field of tissue engineering (Cunha
and Grenha 2016; Zhang et al. 2019; Li and Tan 2018; Guibet et al. 2007).
2021; Asti and
2. Chitosan
The second most common natural polymer after cellulose is chitosan, a cationic
polysaccharide that is a deacetylated derivative of chitin. One of the most prevalent
polysaccharides in the marine environment is chitosan. Numerous marine
invertebrates’ exoskeletons depend on it for structural support. Chitosan is mostly
made up of units of d-glucosamine (70–90%) and N-acetyl-d-glucosamine
(10–30%) joined by α-1,4-glycosidic bonds. It is a high toxicity bioactive polymer.
110 O. Sarkar et al.
It is used in many different applications, such as nerve tissue engineering. Additionally, chitosan has antibacterial properties due to the interaction of its cargo with the
microbial membrane. The utility and printing potential of chitosan as a bioprinting
technique are amply demonstrated using chitosan-based hydrogel as bioink in 3D
bioprinting of bone tissue engineering. Following 21 days of culture, the liquid
adhesive is mineralized and encapsulated in chit
formation. Chitosan’s amino groups
can be chemically altered to create further
osan-based hydrogel cells in bone
derivatives that have a wide range of biological activities, adequate solubility, and
applications. However, since chitosan is not thermoplastic and breaks without
melting, it is generally not suitable for thermomechanical processes. The operating
temperature must be controlled to prevent the degradation of chitosan (Zhang et al.
2019; P
eniche et al. 2008;
Lizardi
Mendoza et
al. 2016;
i Kumar 2000).
Rav
3. Collagen
Three thin, intertwined protein chains make up the triple helix form of collagen, a
polymer rich in proteins. The coordination of RGD sites is necessary for the cell
attachment domains on these protein chains. In addition, collagen contains
hydroxyproline-hip in addition to being abundant in amino acids that are
non-polar such as glycine (30%), alanine (10%), and proline (10%). It has a graceful
skin tone. Because collagen has these qualities low immunogenicity, biodegradability, and biocompatibility it is frequently employed in tissue engineering 3D
bioprinting. Since pure collagen hydrogels have poor properties, collagen can be
modified through esterification or used as bioinks to create tissue models or
structures by mixing with other materials such as alginate and gelatin. Owing to
3D bioprinting technology, collagen is currently used in thyroid, corneal, and skin
restoration procedures. Furthe rmore, its use in other domains is evident. Due to its
enormous volume, low point of melting, low fluidity, good hydrophilicity, and
asepsis, marine collagen possesses some advantages not found in collagen from
terrestrial species. Collagen has so far been discovered in a wide variety of marine
creatures, such as salmon, coral algae, sponges, sea urchins, jellyfish, and corals
(Zhang et al. 2019; Kim et al. 2016; Shoulders and Raines 2009; Abraham et al.
2008).
Plant-Derived Biomaterials
1. Alginate
One of the
materials most utilized in 3D bioprinting is alginate. Brown algae, such as
macrocystis, seaweed, and ascophyllum nodosum, can create alginate when given
the right conditions. The structural component comprises a copolymer made up of
polysaccharides D-mannuronic acid (M) and L-glucuronic acid (G). It was discovered that the copolymer’s M and MG sections enhanced flexibility, while the G part
increased the copolymer’s hardness and gelling qualities. The natural M:G ratio,
which also represents seasonal and environmental variations, is influenced by the
5 3D Printing and 4D Printing: Sustainable Manufacturing Techniques… 111
kind of algae that produces alginate (Jovic et al. 2019; Lee and Mooney 2012; Axpe
and Oyen
2016).
Various combinations, therefore, produce anionic molecules with various biomedical applications. Alginate itself does not form adhesion ligands for mammalian
cells. On the other hand, the inclusion of gelatin encourages cell adhesion and
differentiation and makes it possible to adjust the hydrogel’s viscosity in accordance
with extrusion and imprinting patterns. Improving the model is achieved by sewing
in just a few minutes. Due to the material connection between components, gaps are
easily formed after extrusion, and deformation patterns occur even in quick
connections. Another way to solve this problem is to use calcium chloride and
barium chloride nebulizers, which have fewer side effects and make the process
more complicated. The primary technique for crosslinking alginate hydrogel
involves the use of Ca2+ ions for ionic crosslinking gel, which is regulated by
changing the crosslinking agent’s temperature These ions serve as a conne ction
between the chains of the G-block polymer. CaCl2 is among the most often utilized.
The fact that high concentrations of Ca 2+ are cytotoxic and that gels dissolve slowly
due to the exchange and discharge of Ca 2+ ions into the fluid around it are two
drawbacks of binding alginates. Additionally, the build-up period in the body is
restricted. If the building blocks break down over time and are replaced by ECM
released by cells, then these features might be advantageous (Giuseppe et al.
2018).
2. Nanocellulose
Nanoc
ellulose, a v
ersatile and ubiquitous biopolymer, has enormous potential
because of its strong physical attributes, superior surface chemistry, favorable
biological qualities (high biological compatibility, low biodegradability, and
non-toxic), and economic efficiency (Jovic et al. 2019). The primary structural
polymer in plants is cellulose, which can be found in the form of paracrystalline
tiny filaments or nanofibrils. These polymers are connected to other macromolecules
such as proteins, lignin, and heteropolysaccharides. The resultant composite
provides plant structures with increased strength and flexibility (Wang et al. 2020)
The archi
tecture is hierarchical, ranging from a complex arrangement of cellulose
polymer strands (~1 nm) to a massive fibrillar structure with a diameter of ~5 to 20
).
micrometers (Jovic et al. 2019
Nanocellulose includes three distinct kinds of
nanomaterials: Cellulose Nanocrystals (CNC), Cellulose Nanofibers (CNF), and
Bacterial Nanocellulose (BNC). Nanocellulose in various forms is gaining popularity as a nanoscale component for sustainable bioinks in studies on the use of
biocompatible polymers. Their potential uses include creating 3D cell culture
platforms for drug screening. These include synthetic hydrogel scaffolds and skin
tissue mimics that can be printed using scaffold or cell 3D bioprinting to repai r
damaged cartilage or bone tissue, as well as cancer resear ch. However, widespread
acceptance of nano fibrillated cellulose bioinks among the intended users (mos tly
physicians and cell biologists) has been impeded by concerns about the material’s
in vivo biodegradability and a lack of proof for its usefulness. Nano safety of
cellulose nanoparticles: Because humans lack enzymes (e.g., cellulases) capable of
.