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366 A. H. Jasni et al.
14.8 Conclusion
14.8.1 Summary of Key Points
To sum up, cellulose-derived hydrogels, which take advantage of cellulose’s special
qualities to create sustainable and biocompatible materials, provide a flexible platform for tissue engineering and regenerative medicine. These hydrogels have great
promise to address important issues in environmental sustainability and healthcare
through a mix of customized synthesis techniques and functionalization tactics. The
field of cellulose-derived hydrogels will develop toward revolutionary
breakthroughs in biomedical engineering and other fields with continued research
efforts focused on improving their characteristics and broadening their uses.
14.8.2 Implications for the Field of Tissue Engineering
Tissue engineering will be shaped by the incorporation of sustainability concepts,
which will have a significant impact on environmental sustainability and global
healthcare (Garcia et al. 2024). These implications include:
1. Environmental Responsibility: By minimizing resource depletion, pollution,
and ecosystem damage associated with traditional materials and manufacturing
techniques, the environmental footprint of biomedical research and development
is reduced when sustainable approaches are included into tissue engineering.
2. Healthcare Accessibility: By offering accessible, environmen tally acceptable
methods for tissue regener ation, repair, and customized therapy, sustainable
tissue engineering techniques hold the potential to democratize healthcare. Global
access to and affordability of healthcare can be enhanced by these strategies by
utilizing green technologies and renewable resources.
3. Innovative Solutions: Adopting sustainability encourages innovation in tissue
engineering, which propels the creation of cutting-edge fabrication methods,
treatment approaches, and biomaterials. Biomaterials that are sustainable and
possess improved functionality, biocompatibility, and regenerative qualities present novel prospects for tackling unfulfilled clinical requirements and promoting
biomedical research.
4. Regulatory Compliance: Sustainability enables tissue engineering procedures to
be in line with changing legal requirements as well as public expectations.
Adherence to environmental, social, and ethical norms bolsters tissue engineering
technologies’ legitimacy, dependability, and public acceptance among regulators,
healthcare providers, and the general public.
5. Interdisciplinary Collaboration: Interaction between sustainability and tissue
engineering promotes multidisciplinary cooperation between scientists,
engineers, environmentalists, legislators, and medical practitioners. In order to
address complex healthcare and environmental concerns, this collaborative
14 Sustainable Synthesis of Cellulose-Derived Hydrogels for Tissue Engineering 367
strategy promotes knowledge exchange, cross-disciplinary innovation, and holistic problem-solving.
6. Global Impact: The application of sustainable tissue engineering has the potential to significantly improve both environmental and human health on a global
scale. Tissue engineers support environmental preservation, global quality of life
enhancement, and sustainable development goals by emphasizing sustainability
in research, development, and clinical translation.
To summarize, the incorporation of sustainability principles into tissue engineering
holds significant consequences for the fields of healthcare, environmental management, innovation, and international cooperation. Tissue engineering can move closer
to a future that is more robust, equitable, and sustainable for both people and the
environment by embracing sustainability.
14.8.3 Recommendations for Future Work
Suggestions for further research and development in the domain of tissue engineering and sustainability principles cover a variety of topics (Smith et al.
These recommendations include:
1. Material Innovation: Extended investigation into the creation of biocompatible,
mechanically strong, and slowly degrading sustainable biomaterials. We can
increase the range of environmentally acceptable materials available for tissue
engineering applications by investigating new natural polymers, bio-based
composites, and bioactive additives.
2. Bio-fabrication Technologies: The development of manufacturing methods like
electrospinning, self-assembly, and 3-dimension (3D) bioprinting to allow for the
accurate creation of intricate tissue structures from sustainable biomaterials.
Production of tissue engineering can be made more sustainable and scalable by
using green manufacturing concepts, such as additive manufacturing techniques
and bio-ink compositions.
3. Regenerative Therapies: Investigation of customized medicine techniques and
regenerative therapy that take advantage of sustainable biomaterials’ capacity for
regeneration and tissue repair. Examining how biomaterials, cell treatments, and
growth factors work in concert can hasten tissue repair and functional recovery in
a variety of therapeutic contexts.
4.
Education and
Outreach: To foster a new generation of ecologically conscious
researchers and practitioners, tissue engineering courses and professional development initiatives should incorporate sustainability principles. Raising people’s
knowledge of tissue engineering best practices, ethical issues, and environmental
issues can enable them to make wise decisions and advance the industry.
2023a, b).
368 A. H. Jasni et al.
By concentrating on these suggestions, practitioners and researchers can promote the
incorporation of sustainability concepts into tissue engineering and help create
novel, eco-friendly medical and regenerative medicine solutions.
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Ainil Hawa Jasni, a former graduate of Monash University
(MU) and National Defence University of Malaysia (NDUM).
She completed her PhD journey at Faculty of Engineering, International Islamic University Malaysia. She obtained her Bachelor
of Science in Biotechnology from MU and Master of Science in
Biology from NDUM. She had been working under the area of
nanotechnology, material science, biotechnology in military
applications including microbiology, biosensor, proteomic, and
electrospinning since 2013.
Azlin Suhaida Azmi, a former graduate of the Widener University, Pennsylvania, USA started her career as a Chemist at First
Malaysia Coating Sdn. Bhd. on April 1999. On September 1999,
she received an offer from UniversitiTeknologi PETRONAS
(UTP) and working as trainee lecturer. She continued her study
in MSc in Process Integration at University of Manchester Institute of Science and Technology (UMIST), Manchester, UK in
2001 for 1 year. Early 2002 she was back to UTP and being
appointed and served as Lecturer until October 2006. On
November 2006, she moved to International Islamic University
Malaysia (IIUM) as lecturer before she pursued her study at
University of Malaya (UM), Malaysia on December 2007. She
obtained her PhD in Bioprocess in Chemical Engineering on
September 2012. Currently she is attached as an Associate Professor to the Department of Chemical Engineering & Sustainability,
International Islamic University Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur.
372 A. H. Jasni et al.
Noor Illi Puad Mohamad Puad graduated with B. Eng
(Biochemical-Biotechnology) (Honors) from International Islamic
University Malaysia (IIUM) in 2007. She was then appointed as
an Assistant Lecturer at the Calatrava Department of Biotechnology Engineering, IIUM in the same year. Later in 2011, she
obtained her PhD in Chemical Engineering and Analytical Science
from The University of Manchester, UK. Her research interest is
mainly on Plant Cell Culture Technology, Flux Balance Analysis,
Kinetic Modelling and Simulation, Plant Secondary Metabolite
and Natural Products, Bioprocess and Renewable Energy. Pres-
ently, she is an Assistant Professor at the Department of Chemical
Engineering & Sustainability, Faculty of Engineering, Interna-
tional Islamic University Malaysia (IIUM).
Fathilah Ali is an Assistant Professor at the Department of Bio-
technology Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, International
Islamic University Malaysia (IIUM), Gombak 50,728, Kuala
Lumpur. She obtained her PhD in Chemical and Biomolecular
Engineering from Korea Advanced Institute of Technology
(KAIST) in 2013. Her research interest is in the area of Polymer
Blend and Composites, Polymer Nanocomposites, Synthesis of
polymers, block copolymers and polyurethane, Synthesis of
Nanoparticles using natural sources, Polymers in Sensors,
Polymers for packaging materials, Functional Polymers for lithog-
raphy, Polymerization of biopolymer from the monomers pro-
duced from fermentation process, and Separation and
Purification Techniques. She has nearly 2 years’ experience in
teaching on Process Plant and Design, Biopharmaceutical Engi-
neering, Seminar for undergraduates and Fluid Mechanics.
Dr. Fathilah also serves as a reviewer for polymer related journals.
She published 11 papers in National and International
conferences, 6 papers in SCOPUS and ISI journals and 2 book
chapters. She was secretary for Nano Research Group and currently the Deputy Dean of Student Affairs (Jan 2015—present).
Yusilawati Ahmad Nor obtained her qualifications of Chemical
and Biological Science (Nanotechnology) for her Doctor of Phi-
losophy from University of Queensland and she acquired her
Biotechnology Engineering Masters Degree from the International
Islamic University Malaysia (IIUM). She is now working as an
Assistant Professor at the Department of Chemical Engineering &
Sustainability, Faculty of Engineering IIUM.
Hydroxyapatite-Starch-Based Sustainable Biomaterials
Christian Chapa
Abstract
In this chapter, key aspects of biomaterials composed of hydroxyapatite in
combination with starch are discussed with emphasis on nanomedicine
applications, especially drug delivery. Both biomaterials, hydroxyapatite and
starch, present advantages considering sustainability aspects. In the introduction
broadly discussing the potentiality and outstanding advantages of these
biomaterials for such an application, the structure, properties and biomedical
applications of hydroxyapatite as well as the structure and pharmaceutical
preparations of starch are mentioned. In addition, a rationale for the combination
of hydroxyapatite and starch for the creation of sustainable green biomaterials
with enhanced functionalities will be highlighted. Also, separate hydroxyapatitebased, and starch-based drug delivery systems will be explored, and then
we will highlight the properties that the biomaterial seeks to be a drug delivery
system and that this combination could satisfy. Next, a review of hydroxyapatitestarch based drug delivery systems found in formulations reported in the literature
is presented, followed by some strategies for drug incorporation into
hydroxyapatite-starch composites. Finally, the main challenges faced by this
system are addressed, e.g., choosing the routes of administration according to
the idea that hydroxyapatite is unlikely to degrade under physiological
conditions. Undoubtedly, fabrication techniques will improve by adopting
environmentally sustainable methods, so that in the future we will have options
for effective and affordable drug delivery to solve complex medical challenges.
15
C. Chapa (✉)
Grupo de investigación en Nanomedicina, Instituto de Ingeniería y Tecnología,
Universidad Autónoma de Ciudad Juárez, Ciudad Juárez, Mexico
e-mail: christian.chapa@uacj.mx
#
The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2025
R. Malviya, S. Sundram (eds.), Sustainable Green Biomaterials As Drug Delivery
Systems, Biomaterials, Bioengineering and Sustainability 1,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-79062-1_15
373
374 C. Chapa
Keywords
Biomaterials · Sustainability · Drug delivery · Biodegradability · Nanomedicine ·
Hydroxyapatite · Electrospinning · Controlled release · Tissue engineering
Abbreviations
BMPs bone morphogenic proteins
ClAlPc chloroaluminum phthalocyanine
ECM extracellular matrix
HA hydroxyapatite
NAD+ nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide
NHAp nanohydroxyapatite
NMN nicotinamide mononucleotide
PCL poly ε-caprolactone
PLA polylactic acid
SBF simulated body fluid
TIPS thermally induced phase separation technique
β-CD cyclodextrin
β-TCP β-tricalcium phosphate
15.1 Introduction
To discuss about hydroxyapatite compounds combined with starch is to talk about
innovative materials that represent a sustainable approach to various areas, including
nanomedicine, particularly drug delivery. It is undeniable that biomaterials in
nanomedicine have become the main avenues for researching and developing
advanced drug delivery systems. These nanomedicine systems seek to improve
therapeutic efficacy or minimize the side effects of current treatments, something
that the state of the art of medicine has not achieved. Quite simply, hydroxyapatite
and starch-based compounds are two of the materials that have attracted the most
attention. On the other hand, hydroxyapatite, which is a natural mineral form of
calcium apatite, is mainly found in tissue engineering applications, because its
excellent biocompatibility and osteoconductive properties have been demonstrated.
However, many researchers have worked to demonstrate its potential beyond bone
regeneration, consequently the material has been explored, like many others, in drug
delivery systems. It is true that the materials that have been explored for this
application are too many, many and all of them have their advantages and
disadvantages, but the ability of hydroxyapatite to adsorb and release various
therapeutic agents is remarkable, there are not many biomaterials that have this
ability. On the other hand, starch, a glucose homopolymer, which is naturally found
in bread, rice, pasta, cereals, potatoes, peas, corn and is also found as a binder,
15 Hydroxyapatite-Starch-Based Sustainable Biomaterials 375
disintegrator and excipient in pharmaceutical formulations, has numerous properties
that have been amply demonstrated such as biocompatibility, biodegradability and
ease of modi fication, qualities that are extremely useful for nanomedicine. Therefore, when hydroxyapatite and starch are combined, they would form a composite
material that takes advantage of the strengths of both components, and we would be
in the presence of a biomaterial for sustainable drug de
sustainable for reason
Unquestionably, the field of drug delivery is interdisciplinary and multidisciplinary because it encompasses principles of chemistry, biology, materials science and
engineering to obtain and study systems capable of releasing therapeutic agents,
bioactive compounds, etc., in a precise and controlled manner. Moreover,
sustainability is currently in vogue in scientific research on this topic, which is
why we see unique advantages in hydroxyapatite compounds in combi nation with
starch. It should be noted that the structure of hydroxyapatite would provide a robust
matrix for the encapsulation of drugs, and its large area-to-surface ratio would
theoretically improve the carrying capacity of drugs while its biocompatibility is a
guarantee that the body does not reject it due to immunological reactions. At the
same time, starch woul d be contributing to being degraded by the action of body
fluids or by specialized enzymes in their hydrolysis that would contribute to the
adaptation or control of the kinetics of release of the drugs carried.
In this book we discuss sustainable green biomaterials as drug delivery systems,
the reader will not find a combination that promises to be more effective but also
more sustainable, than the combination of hydroxyapatite with starch. Keep in mind
that starch is mostly derived from plants, it is renewable and biodegradable. While it
has been shown that hydroxyapatite can be synthesized from various renewable
resources, such as eggshells and animal bones, which are often considered waste
products and which we will recover later in this chapter. Renewable sources are the
best weapon to ensure that these materials provide a sustainable way to produce the
biomaterial, and even add value to materials that would otherwise contribute to
environmental pollution. Sustainability is based on the principle of ensuring the
needs of the present without compromising the needs of future generations, always
without sacrificing environmental protection, economic growth and social development, therefore, this combination is aligned with the emphasis of green chemistry
and sustainable development in biomedical resear ch. Both materials and their
combination will have biocompatibility, biodegradability and efficacy properties in
the encapsulation and delivery of drugs, all together it is an undeniable potential to
advance advanced and environmentally responsible drug delivery systems.
s that are addressed later in this chapter.
livery systems. We say
15.2 Hydroxyapatite
It is well documented in the scientific literature that hydroxyapatite (HA) is a
compound that mimics the structure and chemical composition of natural bone.
What’s more, probably the vast majority, if not all scientific publications, highlight
this quality. Indeed, the stoichiometry of calcium and phosphorus in this biomaterial