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2 Prospects of Biodegradable Material: Sustainable and Patient-Centric… 41
modify the mechanical characteristics and moisture sensitivity of this biopolymer by
the incorporation of some chemicals and carriers to make it par with some costly
commercial polymers (Waghmare et al.
growth
and multiplication were enabled by the nanofibrous mats of starch which
). According to reports, cutaneous cell
2017
may find use in wound healing application. Another biopolymer is hyaluronic acid
(HA) and shows promise component in tissue engineering because of its physiological activity. Improved effectiveness of HA hydrogel scaffolds may augment tissue
regeneration, repair, and growth. Pectin, when combined with other materials/
at f
chemicals, generated gel th
encoura
ging moisture content with effective antimicrobial property (Yang et al.
acilitate wound gealing by acting as a barrier and
2022).
Biodegradable polymers such as poly (lactic acid) PLA and poly (glycolic acid)
(PGA) are commonly used in the fabrication of wound closure materials and sutures.
With time, these polymers degrade naturally by the physiological stimuli hence
eliminating the necessity of removal process from the body. These dressings can also
be customized to meet the specific demands of the patient by processing biopolymers
into a variety of forms including films, gels, and nanofibers (Gobi et al. 2021). The
therapeutic potential of biopolymers are further increases when they combined with
bioactive substances like growth factors, cytokines, antibacterial and other therapeutics. These bioactive substances facilitate blood vessel creation, cell multiplication,
lowering inflammation, scavenges free radicals and thus speeds up healing process.
Biomedical engineering concepts utilize their newer ideas to incorporate/combine
these beneficial molecules without any adverse interaction to promote the beneficial
effects as per the requirement of the patient (Alven et al. 2022).
These combinations
address the various issues of tissue repair and regeneration because of their unique
characteristics. By utilizing these characteristics of mixed biopolymers, scientists are
creating innovative wound dressings and medication delivery systems that promote
healing and enhance patient outcomes. There are new advanced hydrogel dressing
materials employed for woun d healing: mechanically active sticky hydrogels and
self-adapting hydrogels. These smart hydrogel systems can actively encourage the
wound healing process in comparison to traditional hydrogel dressings. These
mechanically active and adhesive hydrogels can stick to the wounds effectively
and actively shrink them in reaction to outside stimuli such as changes in temperature, moisture content and pH etc. Self-adapting hydrogels may change their shape,
size, and thickness to perfectly fit wounds while also adjusting to the local physiological environment. This property may be considered positive in several aspects and
2022).
negative in some respects (Zhang et al.
The advancement in tissue engineering and skin biology of scarless wound healing led to the development of skin
counterparts to regenerate whole skin by accessing the intrinsic regeneration potential with the use of pro-regenerative scaffolds. Full skin regeneration appears to be
greatly enhanced by pro-regenerative scaff olds that trigger regenerative immune
response (Krishani et al. 2023). These scaffolds provide a supportive framework for
cell attachment, proliferation, and tissue regeneration. They can mimic extracellular
matrix natural architecture and hence promote wound healing.
42 D. U. Meenakshi et al.
Moreover, using α-cyclodextrin chitosan modified into hydrophobic
demonstrated good hemostatic properties and reduced bleeding time in a rat model
by 90%. Chitosan-Kaolin porous microsphere had noteworthy hemostatic properties
in two rat models (tail amputation and liver laceration). A commercial chitosanbased hemostat powder and standard medical gauze were compared, and the
chitosan sponges were demonstrated to have good characteristics such as easy
handling, hemocompatibility, biocompatibility, mechanical stability, and absorption
capacity to be applied as wound dressing material clinically (Gheorghiță et al.
2023).
Commercially available chitosan-based wound care products are effectively applied
clinically. Axiobio(sponge), ChitoSAM™ 100 (nonwoven), ChitoClot Bandage
(nonwoven), ChitoClot Pad (sponge), and ChitoClot (Gauze) consist of 100%
chitosan. Gel-type products like ChitoClear
®
and Opticell® are some martketetd
chitosan-based dressing used for patient care (Thambiliyagodage et al. 2023).
Recent studies have explored innovative applications of collagen-based drug
delivery in various biomedical contexts. Kumar et al. (2014) developed a collagenmimetic peptide for thrombosis treatment, demonstrating its potential as a hemostat
through in vitro assays on platelet behavior and clotting kinetics. Another study used
a solvent-based approach to create a collagen/chitin biomaterial with superior
properties, showing promising results in vitro and in vivo models of hemostasis.
Furthermore, combining collagen with γ-polyglutamic acid resulted in a gel with
enhanced viscosity and mechanical strength. Implanted in rat skin incisions, this gel
promoted cell adhesion, fibroblast migration, and collagen fibril maintenance,
suggesting its potential as a scaffold for tissue repair. Pad-type dressing materials
like Biopad (100% collagen), Puracol (collgen+honey), Promogran (collagen+cellulose) 100%, gel-type wound care materials like Stimulen (collgen+glycerine) Mesh
like products like ColActive (Gelatin, sodium alginate, carboxymethylcellulose,
EDTA, plasticizers) are some of collagen-based dressing applied clinically (Tronci
2019). Results from complex animal and cellular research of these natural
biopolymers utilizing natural material and less process costs, can make the finished
products a cost effective, patient-oriented treatment option for wound healing in
patients especi ally beneficial to the patients from lower socioeconomic backgrounds.
2.5.2 Drug Delivery Systems
Biopolymers are used for the fabrication of various drug delivery systems, which
have advantages over the application of conventional dosage forms. Some drug
delivery systems in which biopolymers are used are discussed in this section.
2.5.2.1 Nano-based Drug Delivery Systems
Nano-based drug delivery systems have revolutionized therapeutic studies, particularly treating various cancers and chronic diseases. The drug delivery mechanism
offers several pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic advantages, including
improved bioavailability, controlled or targeted delivery, and enhanced stability
for long-term storage (Sudhakar et al. 2021).
2 Prospects of Biodegradable Material: Sustainable and Patient-Centric… 43
2.5.2.2 Polymeric Nanoparticles
Polymeric nanoparticles are effective at delivering nutraceuticals and boost ing
antigens antimicrobial/immune related action. For instance, PLGA nanoparticles
loaded with the vaccine antigen against acute P. aeruginosa demonstrated encouraging results and tobramycin loaded alginate/surface modified chitosan
nanoparticles showed high bioavailability and effective therapeutic efficacy against
P. aeruginosa (Wibowo et al.
2021). Nanogel, a form of polymeric nanoparticle
showed promising therapeutic adherence because of its sustained and regulated drug
release characteristics. Polymers and drug molecules have three-dimensional network structures that can hold small amounts of chemicals or other nutraceuticals.
Hence, they allow for precise control over the release characteristics, physical
properties and efficacy of the active molecule and reduce side/adverse effects.
These characteristics holds promise for the safe bio distribution and delivery methos
for vaccine (Trucillo 2024).
2.5.2.3 Solid-Lipid Nanoparticles (SLNs)
The application of solid lipid nanoparticle (SLNs) formulation in the management of
cutaneous diseases and related issues has demonstrated notable success in the field of
biomedical engineering. This formulation approach provides targeted delivery,
sustained/controlled release, and protect the stability of the active constituent
because of their biodegradable nature and biocompatible chemical composition
with the physiological environment. They can encapsulate different types of therapeutic agents including genes, cytokines, and several proteins. Physiologically,
intact skin inhibits topical therapy permeation. However, SLNs rearranges and
fluidize the stratum corneum lipid matrix because of its physiological lipid composition and thus enhances drug permeability. They also provide a seali ng effect that
help to minimize water loss from the skin and leaving skin more moisturised.
Innovations in lipid based nano formulations have reduced the cost, frequency of
administration toxicity while increasing the half-life and bioavailability of several
therapeutic agents especially related to skin wound and diseases. Most membranes
and materials used as regeneration agents are hydrophilic, polar macromolecules.
Thus, the therapeutic effect is limited because of its inability to approach the target
wound region through various natural barriers such as the vascular endothelium. On
the contrary liposomes, SLNs, nanoemulsions and micelles are examples of nanoscale lipid formulations. Targeting can be accomplished by altering the surface of the
medicine such that it accumulates in a particular location, which lowers toxicity and
increases efficiency. Numerous studies that used lipid nano formulation bilayer and
scaffolds to repair tissue damage have shown promising outcomes in recent years
(Fig.
2.3). To produce concentrated drug carriers for biomedical applications or
signal intensity diagnostic probes, both hydrophilic and hydrophobic species can be
effectively entrapped with phospholipid matrix. The application of SLN towards
targeted chemotherapy and diagnostics as well as surface modification for tissue
engineering applications reported to be successful (Filipczak et al. 2021). SLNs are a
viable therapy option for burn and chronic wounds because of their sustainable
biological characteristics. Additionally, SLNs, liposomes and niosomes have been
44 D. U. Meenakshi et al.
Fig. 2.3 The biodegradable nature of ECG patch ensures comfort and convenience for the user, as
well as environmentally friendly disposal once the device is no longer needed. In a similar way
sustainable biomaterials in drug delivery minimize the risk of adverse reactions and improve patient
compliance by providing a more convenient and efficient method of drug administration
demonstrated to efficiently transport medication to wound sites and biodegradable
polymers like PLA and PEG have been utilised as scaffolds to encourage tissue
regeneration. When combined, these two systems may have a beneficial influence on
wound healing. They can encapsulate a variety of drugs including hydrophilic and
hydrophobic substances and are biocompatible. They also could target tissues and
cells that plays important role in the process of wound healing incl
macrophages,
release medications over an extended period and offer physical
uding
support for tissue regeneration. Maintaining ideal therapeutic concentration at the
wound site can also be aided by the prolonged release of medication from the
polymers. There are still certain issues that need to be resolved despite the beneficial
effects of combinational systems. The absence of a consistent process for assessing
ther c
these systems efficacy is one of the main obstacles. Ano
long-term
of
on the effectiveness and safety of these combinational
data
hallenge is the absence
formulations. Further detailed research is needed to ascertain the ideal dosage,
course of treatment, as well as to validate the safety and effectiveness of these
system for chronic use in human s and for tailoring the effectiveness as per the
requirements of the individual patient (Farasati et al.
2023).
Micelles, known for their stability and acid degradability, are favored carriers for
anticancer agents, with hydrotropic polymer micelles showcasing versatility in
delivering poorly water-soluble drugs. Zhang et al. (2017) and Kim et al. (2011)
2 Prospects of Biodegradable Material: Sustainable and Patient-Centric… 45
investigated the solubilizing abilities of polymeric forms of N, N-diethyl nicotinamide (DENA) and N, N-dimethyl benzamide (DMBA) for various
pharmaceuticals.
In medical applications, three micelles are typically studied: regular micelles,
reverse micelles, and unimolecular micelles. As exemplified by PEG-PLGA and
PEG-PLA, regular micelles self-assemble with a hydrophobic core and a hydrophilic
exterior. They have been explored for in vivo targeted drug delivery, such as
aptamer-conjugated nanoparticle systems targeting prostate cancer. Multiple
branched polymeric molecules called dendrimers offer exciting biomedical
applications owing to their hyper branching, compact nature, and biodegradability.
They find use in targeted cancer therapy, bone regeneration and controlled therapeutics delivery (Chauhan 2018).
Dendrimers have the potential in receptor- mediated targeting and enhance
therapeutics uptake while reducing toxicity, although challenges related to the
dendrimers size and kinetics persist. The toxicity of dendrimers, especially in
relation to surface charge characteristics, is a concern despite their potential and
hence several researchers are fabricating the surface modified dendrimers to get
better therapeutic efficiency with less adverse consequences to the patients in the
clinical settings (Simanek 2021).
2.5.2.4 Liposomes
Phospholipid bilayers are the main component of the skin and most of the physiological membranes. These bilayers play a major role in biomedical engineering as
they are the main targets for drug delivery, diagnostics, implant applications etc.
Phosphatidylcholine (Lecithin), phosphatidyl ethanolamine, phosphatidyl serine,
phosphatidyl inositol, phosphatidyl glycerol, and cholesterol are lipids used for
liposome preparation (Fathi and Oyelere 2016; Laouini et al. 2012).
Therefore,
liposomes are majorly made of lipid biomaterials. These biomaterials are thought
to be utilized more frequently as tools for regenerative medicine, reconstructive
surgery, and sustained drug release as they can mimic the physiological environment
(Monteiro et al. 2014
In clinical settings, liposome-based therapy is commonly
).
employed in the treatment of systemic fungal infections and cancer. However, the
application of liposomes has gone beyond these clinical uses and now they are
prominently used in the vaccine development, imaging, and cosmetics because of its
adaptable characteristics with physiological environment. Furthermore, several tissue engineering scaffolds manufactured with liposome technology have been
ap
d for human applications. Magnetic cationic liposomes (MCLs) are posi-
prove
tively charged magnetic nanoparticles encapsulated/bounded/fabricated with
liposomes and they can easily interact with negatively charged cell membranes.
They are commonly used in tissue engineering, regenerative medicine, drug delivery
formulations, and scaffolds fabrication. The trend of employing magnetic forcebased tissue engineering is hype. They are easily accepted by the patients because of
their ability to interfere with the tissue angiogenesis, tissue regeneration, proliferation, and bone remodeling in a tailored manner. Cell seeding into the core spaces of
the scaffolds was successfully supported by MCLs (Monteiro et al.
2014).
46 D. U. Meenakshi et al.
For tissue engineering applications related to gene delivery, liposomal scaffold
systems are commonly employed as biodegradable biomaterials because of their
efficiency in localized delivery in the target space. Some of the clinically significant
patient centric approaches in gene therapy includes bone and cartilage regeneration.
These modified genes encode specific molecular components in the bone and
cartilage, which play a major role in the bone differentiation, maturation, and
ossification process. Some of these genes transfer through bonne marrow stromal
cells and were utilized to take advantage of tissue vascularization. Liposomes loaded
with genes that promote wound healing showed beneficial results in animal models.
Hence, to combine the formulation advantages of liposomes with the physical and
mechanical strength of scaffolds, liposomal biomaterial hybrid systems are developed in the biomedical engineering field (Nsairat et al.
the field of biomedical engineering ultimately resulted in the common usage and
reputation of novel systems that are appropriate for patient centric approach.
2022). This development in
2.5.3 Medical Devices
2.5.3.1 Implants
Implantable devices play a crucial role in modern medicine, aiming to replicate or
replace damaged body parts to maintain normal bodily functions. While traditional
materials like metals, ceramics, and synthetic polymers have been widely used, they
have draw backs such as immunological rejection and concerns about biodegradation
products. Biopolymers from living organisms offer promising alternatives due to
their well-defined structures, degradability, and renewability (Bhatt and Jaffe 2015).
LA, de
P
synthetic polymers while being bioabsorbable. The property of biodegradation
makes PLA a suitable material to be used in applications like stents as it internalizes
with the body fluids and eliminates the needs for additional removal surgeries.
Preclinical and clinical research demonstrated that PLA based stents work efficiently
compared to other non-biodegradable/biomaterial implants. Furthermore, this polymer has been utilized in composite scaffolds for tissue engineering and demonstrated
promising results in induci ng bone formation when used as a carrier for proteins
(Mukherjee and Kao 2011)
implants is chitosan. It has diverse applications in the field of tissue regeneration
including bone, skin, liver, and nerves. Research reports indicate that chitosan is
efficacious in fostering hemocompatibility and endothelial cell compatibility in
coronary stents and augmenting mechanical properties when combined with other
natural biopolymers like alginate, gellan gum, etc. (Meng et al. 2009).
mainly due to its distinct beta sheet structure and hence it is used in several implanted
devices, drug delivery formulations and tissue engineering scaffolds. 3D porous silk
fibroin scaffolds offering ideal conditions for cell adhesion and proliferation in
recent years and used for patient centric approach (Meinel and Kaplan 2012).
rived from natural sources like corn starch and rice, presents properties like
nother commonly employed biodegradable polymer in
. A
Biopolymer silk has exceptional mechanical strength and biocompatibility
2 Prospects of Biodegradable Material: Sustainable and Patient-Centric… 47
2.5.3.2 Other Applications
Biopolymers are employed to develop diagnostic devices such as biosensors,
biochips, and immunoassays. Functionalized biopolymers, including antibodies,
enzymes, and DNA probes, are immobilized onto sensor surfaces to detect specific
biomolecules or analytes in b iological samples with high sensitivity and specificity.
They are also used in dental and orthopedic applications to fabricate dental implants,
bone graft substitutes, and orthopedic implants. Materials like PLA, PGA, PLGA,
and hydroxyapatite-based biopolymers provide structural suppor t, promote
osseointegration, and facilitate bone regeneration in dental and orthopedic surgeries
(Rebelo et al.
2017).
2.6 Challenges and Constraints to the Clinical Use
of Biodegradable Materials
For the benefit of human applications or patient centric approach, it is crucial to
comprehend the properties and behavior of biomaterials derived from both lab-based
and living tissue (Mohd et al. 2023
composites are a few examples of biodegradable materials for human usage and
the difficult aspect is determining which biodegradable material is appropriate for a
given patient. Since a very smaller number of studies determined that biomaterials
including implants had long-term negative effects, there is also concern regarding
the chronic consequences of these biomaterials in the human body. Although
effective creations of musc le, cartilage, skin, and liver tissue have been made in
the biomedical area, tissue engine ering is still considered as a relatively new
technique. However, it is accepted that the method holds considerable promise for
the future development of medical operations (Deperlioglu
gradable piezoelectric materials have limited medical implant uses owing to their
somewhat modest output. Optimizing piezoelectric output is critical to implement
new-Health systems for in-situ diagnosis and monitoring. The second restriction is
that the application direction is not properly aligned with the maximal piezoelectric
constant mode. Overall, all biodegradable materials, particularly biopolymers, have
shear modes with maximal piezoelectric constants, that are lesser than longitudinal
d33. This quality may limit the global usability of certain items. Even if various
research has revealed that piezoelectric components may be bio-degraded, getting to
“true” biodegradability is even now complicated. Current implants comprise
non-degradable components like transmitters, signal amplifiers, rectifiers, substrates,
batteries, and wireless consoles. Scanty research is available on the correlation that
exists between device functioning, piezoelectric performance, and deterioration
rates. Proper design is significant to uphold component degradation rates and thwart
premature device faults within the stipulated lifespan. The challenges emphasized
include: (i) Limited global usability: The quality of certain items being limited may
hinder their widespread use on a global scale , potentially restricting access to
beneficial technologies. (ii) Achieving “True ” biodegradability: Despite research
indicating that piezoelectric components can be bio-degraded, achieving complete
Metal alloys, ceramics, polymers, and
).
2019).
Present biode-
48 D. U. Meenakshi et al.
biodegradability remains a complex task, posing a challenge in the development of
sustainable medical devices. (iii) Presence of non-degradable components: Current
implants contain non-degradable elements such as transmitters, signal amplifiers,
rectifiers, substrates, batteries, and wireless consoles, which can impede the overall
biodegradability of the device. (iv) Lack of research on correlation: There is a
scarcity of research on the relationship between
performance, and
performance of biodegradable implants. (v) Importance of proper design: Proper
design is crucial to maintain component degradation rates and prevent premature
device failures within the expected lifespan, highlighting the need for meticulous
planning and execution in the development of biodegradable medical devices.
degradation rates, making it difficult to optimize the design and
device functionality, piezoelectric
2.7 Prospects and Conclusion
Biomedical engineering and patient centric approach will be wedged by novel
engineering concepts in the future. A few examples of this are artificial limbs and
organs, the genetic engineering of new species, computer-simulated surgery, and
tissue/organ regeneration. With the progress of biomedical research, cell treatments
and neural probes are now being used to treat disability in people with uncommon
disorders. Antimicrobial resistance is treated via phage therapy, which has been
recognized as a potentially catastrophic worldwide concern. Many of the people who
have limited mobility will benefit from this. Given the increasing demand for
alternative treatments for chronic illnesses, such as organ failure and severe tissue
damage, tissue engineering holds enormous promise for the future of healthcare and
will address several issues. Therefore, it makes economic sense for biomedical
engineering to incorporate sustainable and biodegradable polymers into the
patient-centric approach.
resent s
The p
polymer materials, which do not offer optimal long-term performance. Natural
polymers have been used in recent times to make biomimetic or bioactive carriers,
which suggests both merits and demerits. Discoveries in green chemistry are paving
the way for the creation of low-cost, environmentally friendly, readi ly available, and
minimally hazardous drug delivery systems. To design novel, highly functioning
drug delivery systems, it is necessary to optimize green nanotechnologies for the use
of nano scale biomaterials. This opens up new potential for smart devices in biology
and medicine.
In the realm of therapeutic and medical diagnostics, the development of biodegradable piezoelectric materials hold incredible promise for the future. Updates on
biodegradable piezoelectrics for its usage in medical implants are discussed in detail.
The overview and the recent discoveries including crystal controls, compositing, and
new structural desig n are discussed. Bio-sensing for real-time health condition
monitoring, energy harvesting for powering implantable electronics, and therapeutic
applications are just a few of the novel biomedical uses made possible by biodegradable piezoelectric implants. These innovations will aid to light up the next
tate of drug delivery systems is highly dependent on synthetic
2 Prospects of Biodegradable Material: Sustainable and Patient-Centric… 49
generation patient-centered advanced medical devices. Potential applications of
biodegradable polymers promise several advantages for people and the environment,
signaling the arrival of a patient-centric approach in healthcare. These polymers
provide a sustainable substitute for conventional materials since they are made from
renewable resources or via environmentally acceptable methods of synthesis. They
can also be removed from the biological system wi
and costly treatment protocols and consequently they
thout interfering with invasive
reduce the biological and
economical risk of the patients. Hence, the application of biodegradable/sustainable
biomaterials tailored to patient requirements seems promising in the biomedical
field. Their compliance abilities with the physiological environment guarantee the
best therapeutic outcomes and beneficial in the patient centric approach. They also
ects b
reduce the side eff
al
medic
implants and
y enabling precise control of medication release especially in
drug
delivery
systems
and
in
sue
engineering by promoting
tis
cell proliferation, repair, and integration. By using biodegradable polym ers, medical
personnel can treat patients more safely and effectively while reducing environmental harm and focusing on the needs of the patient. These sustainable biomaterials will
open up new avenues towards patient centered care in the fie
engineering from orthopedic implants to drug eluting stents
lds of biomedical
and other medical
devices.
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