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Файл:Ординатура / Хирургия / Библиотека им академика М.И. Перельмана / Книга_5911_Библиотеки_им_академика_М_И_Перельмана.pdf
7 Graphene-Based Carbonaceous Materials: A Sustainable Biomaterial… 173
Graphene and its family have come as versatile materials with wide-ranging
applications, particularly in the realm of optical devices. Their utility extends to,
various sensors, photodetectors, LEDs, and an array of other functionalities. Beyond
optics, graphene-based materials find use in temperature and gas sensors,
transducers, and even carbon storage and conversion technologies (Abbas et al.
2022). These diverse applications underscore the multifaceted potential of graphene
and its derivatives across various scientific and technological domains. Graphene
nanocomposites find extensive application across various environmental sectors as
well, showcasing their versatility and potential impact. Membranes incorporating
graphene nanocomposites demonstrate remarkable efficiency in detecting and
purifying contaminants from wastewater, offering a sustainable solution to water
treatment challenges. They are considered one of the most vital adsorbent materials
for water pollutants among carbonaceous materials since they are endowed with
unique characteristics. Organic pollutants such as phenolic compounds, dyes, and
the like are considered to pose significant dangers to the human body. These
compounds contain hydroxyl functional groups connected to their aromatic rings
(Mohamad Said et al. 2021). This allows them to easily dissolve in water and hence
are considered as major water contaminants and their presence in drinking water is
very much restricted by law. Nonetheless, these compounds find their way to water
supplies. Runoffs from chemical industries, domestic and municipal wastewater, and
day-to-day consumables such as detergents and disinfectants contribute to the
existence of phenols in water (Ladeia Ramos et al.
2024). Whereas, paper, textile,
leather treatment, and paint industries release significant amounts of detrimental
dyes into the water environment (Al-Tohamy et al. 2022). These heavily affect
microorganisms and general life in water, in addition to that of humans. Moreover,
the situation is exacerbated due to the fact that conventional water treatment processes fail to remove these compounds. Here, the many advantages of graphenebased materials, including the numerous active sites, proven chemical stability,
extended surface area, and large delocalized π-electron system, come into effect.
One of the researches made in this regard is that of Sh en et al. In their work, a
magnetic diazonium functionalized-reduced graphene oxide was synthesized with
adsorptive properties to eliminate 4-chlorophenol and 2,4-dichlorophenol in an
aqueous mixture (Shen et al. 2018). The intermolecular π—π interactions generated
from the reduced graphene oxide structure were instrumental in the adsorption
process of these phenolic pollutants. The external magnetic field helped to easily
separate the compound from the solution.
A 3D network of graphene oxide/chitosan composite was synthesized by Lai
et al. for adsorption purposes (Lai et al. 2020). They reported that the composite
proved to be an effective adsorbent for the synthetic RB5 dye. The adsorption
capacity was seen to be 638.93 mg/g. This high adsorption was possi ble through
the π - π arrangement of graphene o xide and the electrostatic interaction between
the parts.
As can be gathered from the above studies, graphene and its family of materials
engage in a multitude of applications. This extends to another vital area—the field of
biomedicine, and the following section is dedicated to it.
174 A. A. Challa et al.
7.3 Carbonaceous Materials in Biomedical Applications
Biomedicine is a broad, multifaceted sector that spans various disciplines such as:
(a) Material chemistry that deals with the compounds that make up the individual
materials, their synthesis methods, and behaviors,
(b) Material sciences that relate to the composition, properties, and requirements of
the biomaterials,
(c) Medical engineering that is concerned with medical devices.
Such fields and more must converge to bring the intended application into fruition.
There are different materials used for biomedical applications. Generally, they
could be classified as metals, ceramics, polymers, or composites. As thei r
applications are numerous, so are their elemental forms. This section discusses the
usage of carbonaceous biomaterials.
Carbonaceous materials have emerged as versatile platforms in the realm of
biomedical applications given their unique physicochemical properties and biocompatibility. They offer various opportunities for addressing challenges in healthcare
through their qualities in terms of thermal, electrical, mechanical, and morphological
properties. Their tunable surface chemistry, exceptional mechanical properties, and
ability to resemble the extracellular matrix are the reasons why they are good choices
for several biomedical applications.
One of the most notable uses of carbonaceous biomaterials is in tissue engineering and regenerative medicine. Scaffolds composed of carbon nanomaterials offer a
biomimetic environment that supports cell adhesion, proliferation, and differentiation. These scaffolds can be designed to handle the mechanical exertions imposed on
native tissues while acting as a structural support for the process of tissue regeneration. Furthermore, the electrical conductivity of certain carbonaceous materials can
modulate cellular behavior and facilitate the integration of electronic devices for
real-time monitoring and control of tissue growth.
Apart f
of drug delivery. For instance, carbon nanotubes and graphene oxide are regarded as
promising for their ability to encapsulate therapeutic agents and deliver them to
specific targets with high precision. Carbon Quantum Dots, nano-diamonds, and
fullerenes have a large surface area-to-volume ratio. This facilitates efficient drug
loading and makes it possible for their surfaces to be coated with different
components such as peptides, antibodies, and aptamers for detecting cancer cells
(Singh et al. 2021). Their ability to be functionalized prompts the attachment of
targeting ligands, allowing selective drug delivery to diseased tissues while not
affecting healthy cells. Along with this, their biocompatibility ensures minimal
adverse effects on biological systems.
These material
tools for various biomedical imaging modalities. Carbon dots, for instance, are
excellent contrast agents for fluorescence imaging and photothermal therapy. Their
small size, low toxicity, and high photostability make them ideal candidates for
he above, carbon-containing materials are also important in the field
rom t
s also exhibit remarkable optical properties, making them valuable
7 Graphene-Based Carbonaceous Materials: A Sustainable Biomaterial… 175
tracking biological processes at the cellular and molec ular levels. Additionally,
carbon-based nanoprobes can be functionalized with targeting ligands to enable
specific imaging of diseased tissues, offering clinicians valuable insights for diagnosis and treatment planning. Through these unique optical properties, researchers are
advancing the frontier of biomedical imaging and paving the way for more accurate
and personalized healthcare interventions.
The following subtopics will be dedicated to highlighting the importance of
carbon-based materials in the biomedicine field; specifically tissue engineering,
drug delivery, biosensing, and smart materials.
7.3.1 Tissue Engineering
Tissue engineering encompasses a multifaceted realm of scientific and engineering
endeavors, connecting the disciplines of biomedicine, materials science, and engineering. This interdisciplinary approach involves understanding biological processes, developing suitable biomaterials, and employing engineering principles to
fabricate tissues as well as organs. It involves the use of scaffolds, made from
biomaterials, to provide an environment that mimics the extracellular matrix of the
body and provides support for cells to adhere and grow. The process is summarized
in Fig. 7.3 (Karkan et al. 2019).
Scaffolds are porous three -dimensional structures that are designed with hollow
pathways and interconnected substructures that allow cell adhesion, growth, and
differentiation. Since they are foreign, they are expected to degrade after a suitable
length of time, biologically, giving way to the growth of new tissues. Tissue
engineering is thus concerned with the appropr iation of the best-suited biomaterials
for the development of scaffolds. The selection of biomaterials is highly dependent
on the mechanical properties of tissues, as mentioned previously. It is expected that
the mechanical strength of the scaffold and that of the tissue ready for modeling
should be close enough, whether in healthy or pathological conditions. The
Fig. 7.3 The process of a tissue engineering design
176 A. A. Challa et al.
material’s surface is the primary gateway for contact with cells and hence guides the
cells’ behavior and fate (Caddeo et al.
2017).
Carbonaceous materials offer multiple benefits for tissue engineering. The proven
excellent electrical conductivity of these materials can enhance electrical stimulation
to culturing cells. This phenomenon positively impacts cell proliferation and osteogenic activity in tissues. In addition, their enhanced electrochemical properties
induce self-sensing activities in the cell-culture medium (Islam et al.
2022). The
intended use of carbon-based materials in three of the most notable tissue engineering fields is discussed here in detail.
A. Bone tissue engineering
Bone is naturally capable of healing itself after a certain injury. Most of the damage
incurred to bones can be healed. However, this self-healing proves to be insufficient
when the level of injury is above the threshold. This could be due to severe trauma,
chronic diseases, or pathological fractures. Bone’s intrinsic ability to heal also
degrades due to aging. In such cases, bone tissue regeneration methods come into
effect. The most preferred and practiced standard so far is bone grafting (mostly
autologous) (Orciani et al. 2017; Putra et al. 2024). However, this comes with its
consequences as it is a complex operation. In the case of autologous grafting,
patients who had such treatments could experience morbidity at the graft harvest
site and there would be a general limited availability of tissue grafts. In the case of
allografts and xenografts, there is the risk of rejection by the receiver and lack of
osteogeneses and vascularization even if the procedure is successful.
Thus, bone tissue engineering introduced substitutes to bone grafts in the form of
scaffolds. These are designed to resemble the physical attributes of the natural bone
and facilitate the growth of new tissues. A scaffold designed for such a purpose must
fulfill several requirements such as (Qu et al. 2019):
(a) biocompatibility that allows cell attachment and that proves non-toxicity,
(b) biodegradability or bioresorbability within the intended safe period,
(c) interconnected porosity for proper nutrient and waste movement,
(d) surface chemistry that mimics that of the applied area,
(e) adequate mechanical strength to be able to handle the exerted weight.
One of
the biomaterials that are highly preferred for such properties is carbon-based
materials. Several researchers have attained ways of using carbonac eous materials in
bone tissue engineering outputs. For instance, single-layer graphene was found to
accelerate osteogenic differentiation, both in vitro and in vivo, of human mesenchymal stem cells (Liu et al. 2016). This was mainly done by upregulating H3K4
methylation at the promoter regions of genes associated with osteogenesis. In
another study, Lee et al. described that their reduced graphene oxide/hydroxyapatite
nanocomposites showed an enhanced osteoinductive potential in an in-vitro model
(Lee et al. 2015). The model used cells from the murine preosteoblastic cell line
7 Graphene-Based Carbonaceous Materials: A Sustainable Biomaterial… 177
which showed successful osteogenic proliferation. Their in-vivo tests also exhibited
the formation of new bone in full thickness from a defect of calvarium specimens.
Multi-walled carbon nanotubes offer structural reinforcement and controlled
release capabilities, aiding in tasks like regulating cell proliferation in biomedicine.
Whereas single-walled carbon nanotubes demonstrate superior performance in precision targeting and cellular imaging applications (Kim et al.
2024). Taale et al.
produced 3D porous scaffolds from bioactive glass and hydroxyapatite nanoparticles
integrated with carbon nanotubes (Taale et al. 2018). The tunable hollow microtubule structure of the scaffolds resulted in an enhanced ion release and electrical
conductivity, whereas the added surface area provided a platform for osteoblasts and
fibroblasts adhesion.
Mxenes are another class of carbon-based materials with tunable optical and
electrical properties. Several studies are being conducted on their applications in
biomedicine. Diedkova et al. showed that a few layers of MXene deposited on
polycaprolactone electrospun nanofibers resulted in an optimum environment that
promoted cellular attachment and proliferation with a mild antibacterial effect. This
composite displayed good conductivity across a range of temperatures, which is a
testimonial to its potentiality as a conductive biomaterial (Diedkova et al. 2023).
B. Cardiac tissue engineering
In t
issue engineering field, there is an essential link between cells and scaffolds,
his t
biomimicking the native myocardial environment to facilitate cell adhesion, proliferation, and maturation. Biomaterials serve as the cornerstone, providing structural
support while fostering cellular interactions vital for tissue development. From
natural polymers like collagen, gelatin, and fibrin to synthetic counterparts such as
polylactide, polyethylene glycol, and polycaprolactone, the selection of biomaterials
is tailored to meet the specific mechanical, biological, and electrical properties
requisite for functional cardiac tissue regeneration (Mohammadi Nasr et al. 2020)
Biomaterials
containing carbon are effectively used in this field as well.
Małgorzata et al. used scaffolds of graphene oxide and reduced graphene oxide for
cardiac tissue regenerati on on mesenchymal stem cells (Sekuła-Stryjewska et al.
).
2021
The graphene oxide sheets with large flake surfaces and low reduced
graphene oxide presented high biocompatibility and were found not to affect the
stem cells proliferation. This was possible without the introduction of cytokines and
growth factors to stimulate the cell culture. Their work also showed that both
materials promoted myocardial and angiogenic differentiation. This ascertained the
value of graphene-based materials to heart tissue regeneration by advancing the
regenerative potential of mesenchymal stem cells. Smith et al. showed the successful
use of hybrid scaffolds of graphene-PEG in repairing cardiac tissues (Smith et al.
2017). The topography of the scaffold surfaces together with their anisotropic
electrical conductivity promoted the structural properties of myofibrils and
sarcomeres. On top of that, the existence of graphene nanomaterials improved the
protein expression, calcium ion transfer, cell morphology, and duration of action
potential. In another study, silk nanofibrous biomaterials modified with reduced
.
178 A. A. Challa et al.
graphene oxide particles were produced to regenerate cardiac tissues (Zhao et al.
2018). The method used was effective in controlling the electrical conductivity of the
biomaterial and its fibrous
morphology for the intended outcome. The reduced
graphene oxide was applied as an ultrathin coating over the surface of the silk
which resulted in a high conductivity. This in turn enhanced the cardiac-specific
spreading of cells, protein expression, sarcomere structures formation, and junctions
in the cell-cell gap. Moreover, the new morphology did not affec
topological
integrity of the original matrices.
t the flexibility and
C. Neural Tissue engineering
In this discipline, the main aspect is to treat injuries to the nervous system, mainly to
the axon bundles. After a traumatic brain injury, the axons in the central nervous
system are extremely difficult to mend, while those in the peripheral nervous system
have a comparatively better regeneration recovery, based on the extent of the
damage (Doblado et al.
2021). This aspect is even more severe since it is hard to
treat the injuries using conventional medications. This is where the tissue regeneration technology comes into effect. In neural tissue engineering, the prevailing
approach involves applying biocompatible 3D biomaterials, along with cells and
bioactive molecules, to rebuild damaged tissues. This methodology prioritizes the
restoration of tissue integrity while endeavoring to preserve the original anatomical
structure and functionality as closely as feasible. This endeavor thus focuses on the
design and engine ering of biomimetic scaffolds that can handle the physical and
functional complexity of native neural tissue, providing a conducive environment for
cell adhesion, growth, and differentiation. Moreover, studies in the biology of stem
cells and advanced tissue culture techniques have opened up new avenues for
generating patient-specific neural cells for transplantation, advancing the potential
of neural tissue engineering to enhance clinical treatments for ailments such as spinal
cord injury, stroke, and neurodegenerative diseases (Boni et al. 2018)
Carbonaceous
biomaterials have emerged as promising candidates in neural
.
tissue engineering because of thei r excellent biocompatibility, tunable mechanical
properties, and conductance. Graphene, carbon nanotubes, and conductive polymers
offer opportunities to mimic the biochemical and biomechanical cues of native
neural tissue. Moreover, their ability to conduct electrical signals enables seamless
integration with the electrical activity of the nervous system, prompting their
potential use in neural interfaces and bioelectronic devices. This electrical conductivity/stimulation makes them capable of promoting neuron differentiation and the
development of longer neurites. As a testimony, neurons cultured on graphene and
carbon nanotube substrates exhibited the capability to establish close connections
between their proximal regions and distal regions (Cellot et al.
2022;
VillanuevaFlores et al. 2023). They also demonstrated heightened synaptic frequencies in the
process. In another study, graphene oxide nano-scaffolds combined with
polycaprolactone demonstrated excellent functional and morphological recovery of
damaged nerve tissue (Qian et al. 2018). The conductive property of GO coupled
with the stiff nature of the polycaprolactone helped in utilizing essential cues of the
7 Graphene-Based Carbonaceous Materials: A Sustainable Biomaterial… 179
design which contributed to a successful nerve guidance aspect, much needed for
peripheral nerve tissue engineering.
7.3.2 Biosensing
Biosensing and biosensors represent pivotal elements in the landscape of biomedical
technology, offering innovative solutions across a spectrum of applications.
Biosensing involves the detection and analysis of biological elements or processes,
providing crucial insights into health, disease, and environmental factors.
Biosensors, sophisticated devices designed to detect biological analytes, play a
central role in this field. They operate by converting biological cues into readable
output signals in the form of electrical, optical, or others, enabling real-time monitoring and diagnostics (Haleem et al.
they include Analyte, Bioreceptor, Transducer, Electronics, and Reader Display
(Tripathy et al. 2021).
In biomedical contexts, biosensors facilitate early disease detection, personalized
medicine, and precise drug delivery, revolutionizing healthcare practices. This has
been particularly evident in the areas of cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, cancer as
well as wound healing procedures (Shafiee et al. 2018). With advancements in
nanotechnology, microfluidics, and bioinformatics, biosensors continue to evolve,
promising enhanced sensitivity, specificity, and portability for a wide array of
biomedical applications (Chuang 2023).
Carbonaceous
erials have shown promising applications as biosensors.
mat
Graphene, for example, can serve as a transducer by forming a discernible signal
by transforming the link between a receptor and target molecules (Joshi et al. 2021).
Its high surface area and ability to be surface functionalized make it ideal for such a
purpose. The functional groups on a modified graphene’s surface allow the attachment of various molecules. These essentials could be proteins, carbohydrates, DNA,
aptamers, and polymers. Whereas enzymes can be immobilized onto graphene
surfaces through electrostatic interactions (between the enzyme’s negative charge
2021). In a typical setting, as shown in Fig. 7.4,
Fig. 7.4 Typical setting of a biosensor; the analyte and the three main components. (Reproduced
under the terms of the open access CC-BY license (Awang et al. 2021))
180 A. A. Challa et al.
and the opposite on the surface of graphene), covalent bonds (between graphene and
the enzymatic molecules), or through entrapping the enzyme (using another polymer
such as a polysaccharide) (Du et al.
2012). Liu et al. were able to produce a
fluorescent biosensor by employing a colloidal interaction of graphene and
RNA-cleaving molecule termed DNAzyme (a DNA oligonucleotide with an ability
to specifically detect bacteria) through non-covalent interactions (Liu et al.
The result was
a suitable selective detection system for E. coli bacterial pathogens.
2018).
Esmail et al. synthesized a nanocomposite sensor consisting of nitrogen-doped
carbon nano-onions mixed with gold nanoparticles (Sohouli et al. 2020). They
used this composite to detect acetaminophen both in aqueous and biological
samples. They reported that the sensor showed a sufficient result in the electrochemical determination of the drug.
7.3.3 Drug Delivery
Currently, several researchers are working on methodologies for controlled methods
of drug delivery to carry and deploy d isease-fighting elements right at target sites in
the body. Carbon-based materials are also chosen here, mainly, as composites.
For e
ered here since their surface area is sufficient for drug encapsulation. The electrons
on the surface of nanographene enable the formation of π–π bonds with diverse
aromatic drug molecules. Following this interaction, the aforementioned oxidized
graphene surfaces can be functionalized to attach chosen molecules, facilitating the
selective delivery of drugs to specific cellular targets. This approach holds promise
for enhancing drug efficacy while minimizing the possibilities of applying off-target.
Xie et
chitosan/sodium alginate to load the drug doxorubicin hydrochloride for killing
cancer cells (Xie et al.
improved dispersion and drug release ability with pH-sensitive components. In
addition, the functionalized graphene oxide nanosheets had an enhanced loading
capacity through the magnetization feature. Similarly, Pan et al. synthesized a heatsensitive drug carrier attached to graphene sheets. Poly (N-isopropyl acrylamide),
was grafted to the graphene oxide surface chemically through π–π and hydrophobic
connections, ensuring a very stable composite (Pan et al.
used to load camptothecin, a water-insoluble anticancer drug, and it showed a
successful tumor-cell-killing ability under physiological conditions without harming
cells. Comparably, nano-graphene oxide combined with PLA-PEG was used to load
the drug paclitaxel in a study made by Angelopoulou et al. (2015). The copolymers
played the role of stabilizing the graphene oxide aqueous dispersion. Whereas, the
effective loading and the control on the release of the drug was possible due to
graphene oxide’s π electrons on the sp
aromatic rings of paclitaxel. Their in-vitro test resulted in the intended cytotoxicity
of the composite against the cancer cells in culture.
e, graphene oxide or reduced graphene oxide monolayers are consid-
xampl
al. reported on a magnetic graphene oxide nanocomposite modified by
).
2019
It was found that the loaded nanocomposites had
201
1). This composite was
2
carbon configuration and those in the
7 Graphene-Based Carbonaceous Materials: A Sustainable Biomaterial… 181
Lin et al. used another carbon group. They utilized fullerenes to delay the release
of drugs through self-assembly (Lin et al.
fullerenes (C
Cl) were assembled into spherical hollow vesicles to control anti-
60R5
2017). Amphiphilic functionalized
cancer drugs release for; fluorouracil, cyclophosphamide, and cisplatin. By combining the structural properties and functionalization capability of fullerenes, it was able
to control the rate of drug release.
Carbon dots are also a different class of carbon that is revolutionizing the drug
delivery sector. By utilizing their ability for surface modifications, several agents can
be loaded onto their functional groups. Through this combination of carbon dots
with antimicrobial agents, some of the drawbacks of the free agents such as poor
water solubility can be solved. Antiviral, antifungal, and antibacterial drugs such as
Metronidazole, Penicillin, Amphotericin B, and locked nucleic acid have been
loaded onto the carbon dots and presented good results (Wang et al. 2022).
7.3.4 Smart Biomaterials
With the growing trend of materials science and engineering, technological might
has presented the world of living biomaterials. Researchers have been able to
synthesize materials that respond in a certain way upon introduction to physical,
chemical, or biological triggers (Amukarimi et al.
stimuli could be light/photo, electrical, ultrasound, magne tic field stimulation, or
biological. Each of these parameters can be modified and fine-tuned to control their
level or strength, ultimately achieving the desired cellular reaction (Gelmi and Schutt
2021). This is a highly sought-after behavior especially in the biomedicine sector,
since the need for control over the impact of applying biomaterials in the body is
crucial. Carbon nanomaterials can be tailored to deploy intended drugs in response
to specific light wavelengths, ensuring targeted therapy with minimal side effects.
Similarly, pH-sensitive carbon-based materials enable drug release in acidic
environments typical of certain disease sites, enhancing therapeutic efficacy while
minimizing systemic toxicity. Moreover, temperature-responsive carbon-based
scaffolds offer opportunities for regulating cellular behavior and promoting tissue
regeneration in a controlled manner.
Nano-
graphene o
xide composed of a redox-responsive, detachable polyethylene
glycol shell was formed by Wen et al. for tumor-selective drug delivery (Wen et al.
2012). The cross-linkage was made via a disulfide linkage which reacts to the
specific stimulus of a redox environment. This PEG-nano graphene oxide was
developed for a fast release of an encapsulated drug, doxorubicin hydrochloride, at
certain levels of tumor-relevant glutathione. The study revealed that the controlled
delivery significantly enhanced the effectiveness of treatments on cancerous cells.
Self-assembly
and self-healing is also another avenue of smart materials. Selfassembly is an elaborate technique in which disorganized units are arranged to
assume an organized structure. The organized fragments pertain to distinct molecular
attributes, including electrostatic, geometric, and photonic properties. These molecular or atomic interactions encompass vario us weak noncovalent forces (Rajapaksha
2021). These external triggers or
182 A. A. Challa et al.
2020). Since healing incor rect bonds and growing ordered domains would require
reversible interactions between building units, the aforementioned noncovalent
forces play a vital role (Talapin et al.
2020).
Here again, carbon-based materials are considered as part of the emerging
technologies. Self-healing carbon-based hydrogels have shown promise to be used
as injectable carriers for controlled delivery of drugs, allowing for sustained release
of therapeutic agents and improved treatment outcomes. In biosensing applications,
self-healing carbon-based materials can be integrated into wearable or implantable
sensors for real-time monitoring of physiological parameters, such as glucose levels
or biomarker concentrations. Furthermore, self-healing coatings based on carbon
materials can increase the biocompatibility and longevity of implantable devices,
reducing the feared risk of infection and implant failure.
The self-healing properties of graphene-containing materials stem from the
unique atomic structure and bonding configurations that they possess. The sp
hybridized carbon atoms in graphene sheets form robust covalent bonds, endowing
the material with exceptional mechanical strength and stability. Upon encountering
structural defects or fractures, these covalent bonds facilitate the migration of carbon
atoms, enabling the material to autonomously repair damage at the atomic scale
(Özçelik et al. 2013). Diffus ion-driven mechanisms, such as vacancy migration and
Stone-Wales transformations, play pivotal roles in facilitating the reformation of
bonds and the restoration of material integrity. Additionally, functional groups and
dopants in compounds containing graphene derivatives can further enhance selfhealing capabilities by promoting cross-linking and facilitating dynamic bonding
interactions. Self-healing graphene composites offer exciting prospects for developing implantable devices and tissue scaffolds with prolonged lifespans and improved
biocompatibility.
2
-
7.4 Biomaterials and Sustainability
Biomaterials have a very extended utilization in today’s world. The main reason is
the simple fact of the global population rise. With an increased number of humans in
today’s technological and capitali st age, come a multitude of health issues that need
material intervention. It is almost impossible to think of a functioning society
without the involvement of biomaterials in one way or the other.
erials c
Biomat
Fig. 7.5 below. Biologically driven ones include chitosan, collagen, gelatin, cellulose, carboxymethyl cellulose, and alginate. These can also be classified as natural/
biopolymers. Metallic biomaterials are considered to be inert and could be degradable (magnesium, iron, and their alloys) or non-biodegradable (stainless steel,
titanium, and cobalt-chromium alloys) (Morsiya 2022)
mainly produced from metallic elements linked with non-metallic elements through
covalent or ionic bonds (Chong et al. 2023). Whereas polymeric biomaterials are
divided into natural and synthetic.
The following are the desired properties of biomaterials:
an be classified as natural, synthetic, or composite as shown in
eramic biomaterials are
. C