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2 Prospects of Biodegradable Material: Sustainable and Patient-Centric… 31
inflammatory drugs to knee joints to treat osteoarthritis. Vancomycin-loaded
salecan/gelatin composites have also shown promise in reducing bacterial
co-culture populations like Staphylococcus aureus, and E. coli (Zhu et al.
2020).
Zein, a protein present in maize, is another biodegradable material that can be
used for encapsulating active substances incorporating micronutrients or propolis
(Jaski et al. 2022). Silk fibroin, derived from arachnids and insects, is also of great
interest because of its mechanical strength, and biocompatibility. Byssal threads
derived from shellfish, and mussel-inspi red polymers have been utilized in several
applications like tissue engineering, nanomedicine, and adhesives (Vineis et al.
2021). Byssal threads, like silkworm silk, are collagen fibres engrossed in polyphe-
nolic resin (3,4-dihydroxy-L-phenylalanine or L-DOPA). Several molecules, including polydopamine, necessitate L-Dopa as an intermediary. Pheomelanin, and
emulelanin can be obtained by mimicking its oxidative melanin polymerization
(Cavallini et al.
2020). Recombinant peptides synthesized from methacrylated
gelatins, and human type I collagen have been utilized to design hydrogels that
take off the extracellular matrix and carry stem cells. Marine-derived collagen from
codfish, eel, and tilapia skin is structurally akin to mammalian collagen and
functions as a promising protein-based biomaterial (Dias et al.
2020).
Due to the use of mammalian gelatin as a protein source for agri food and
pharmaceutical applications, protein-based nano fibers are gaining attention.
Gelatin-based nano fibers activate cell adhesion leading to binding motifs including
Arg-Gly-Asp (RGD) to create tissue-native integrins, used as a biocompatible in a
few in vitro studies (Sanchez et al. 2022). However, there are challenges in designing
efficient and sustainable protein-based biomaterials, including intricacies in clinical
translation, and batch-to-batch variance. Future research should focus on addressing
these challenges, delving into additional protein sources, and establishing novel
material production approaches. Overall, protein biomaterials are the probable
materials to improve tissue engineering, and drug delivery, leading to better patient
outcomes and reduced medical expenses.
2.2.1.2 Polysaccharides Based Sustainable Biomaterials
Both chitin as such and its derivative, chitosan, represent a unique class of
polysaccharides due to their distinctive properties and application potential. Chitin,
of which chitosan is derived, is a polysaccharide found in the exoskeleton of most
crustaceans and the cuticles of insects as well as in the cell wall of algae and fungi.
Chitosan, a viable polysaccharide, is soluble in an acidic environment owing to the
protonation of primary amine groups. The chitin and its deacetylated form, chitosan,
are linear polysaccharides formed from various linear segments of linked (β1 → 4)
residue units of N-acetyl-2-amino-2-deoxy-D-glucose and 2-amino- 2-deoxy-Dglucose, as such. In contrast, they have a high number of acetylated units, and chitin
presents itself as insoluble in acid (Aranaz et al. 2021)
Being the
only polycation in nature, chitosan’s charge density is dependent on the
.
degree of acetylation and pH of the surrounding solution. The former also remains
one of the factors determining chitosan’s solubility alongside the other attached
molecular ion, namely, the molecular weight. Chitosan oligomers are soluble in a
32 D. U. Meenakshi et al.
wide range of pH. Regardless, voluminous chitosan exhibits suitable solubility only
in acidic solutions, restricting its applications to such; the majority of physiological
media are either weakly acidic or neutral (Aranaz et al.
2021). Furthermore, while
most chitosan curren tly produced has been created through chitosan deacetylation,
there’s been a growing interest in various other types. Chitosan from fungi and
insects has attracted attention due to the increased demand for vegan friendly
products as well as the ability to control the molecule’s viscosity via the use of a
different biosynthesis method (Huq et al.
proper
ties of chitin and chitosan involves the following: mucoadhesive activity, an
2022). Biological and technological
anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anti-microbial, anti-fungal, anti-hyperglycemic,
anti-tumoral, wound healing effect, and others; some of these properties largely
depend on physicochemical features of polymers such as molecular weight and
acetylation degree. Chitosan science is a rapidly expanding area with increased
s a
research opportunitie
ising research areas for further development of biotechnol ogical polymers with
prom
nd commercial potential. It may represent one of the most
implications in bio catalysis, drug delivery systems, and other fields (Harugade et al.
2023). A simple freeze-drying method designed a 3D macro porous from bacterial
cellulose
, used in drug screening and in-vitro cancer biology.
Good biocompatibility, minimal immunogenicity, and biomimetic scaffolding
were demonstrated in a study of composite constructed from nanocellulose and
nanochitin hydrogels for bone tissue engineering (Torres et al. 2015). The most
universal biopolymer, cellulose, has multiple uses and may form the basis of nano-
2022
structured materials like nanocrystals and nanofibers (Zuppolini et al.
The
).
second most general biopolymer, lignin, is convenient in polymer and composite
materials and is recurrently available in fiber waste products from natural processes.
The overarching objective is to spot sustainable biomaterials that do not impair
humans or other animals, are generally commercially feasible, and do not exhaust
natural resources. The use of these materials may appreciably vary the landscape of
drugs in numerous ways, including drug delivery methods. Electrospun cellulose
fibre meshes were manufactured for use in bone tissue engineering. These meshes
have a high ability to retain human recombinant bone morphogenic protein-2 and
maintain their structural and mechanical integrity for a period of seven days (Filion
et al. 2011).
Another study demonstrated the controlled release of antibacterial
medicines along with good biocompatibility and non-toxicity when ethyl hydroxy
ethyl cellulose (vinyl alcohol) nanofibers were created for tissue engineering and
drug delivery (Wali et al. 2018). With the development of gelatin carboxy methylcellulose hydrogels, scientists worked to apply their application on engineering
vascularized and cell dense 3D tissues organs. This resulted in properties that are a
suitable candidate for the quick preparation of perfusable vascular networks,
cytocompatibility, and a sustainable microenvironment for angiogenesis (Kageyama
et al.
2016). By imitating natural tissues and structures, biological materials are
greatly advancing in medical technology and improving their compatibility with the
human body for a patient centric approach (Trucillo 2024).
2 Prospects of Biodegradable Material: Sustainable and Patient-Centric… 33
2.2.1.3 Hydroxyapatite Based Sustainable Biomaterials
Hydroxyapatite is a calcium phosphate derivative. It is considered most suitable
component for bone engineering as more than half of the bone itself is made of
compounds resembling hydroxyapatite (Fernando et al.
tite ceramics infused composites show physical properties like that of bone (Ohtsuki
2008). Hence many studies reported improved bone formation and repair. A
randomized clinical trial by Resende et al. (
shown to be a better alveolar socket preservation before the dental implantation, with
a higher degradation rate compared to current commercial xenografts. The hydroxyapatite nanocomposites are even shown to improve the bone tumor therapy, even the
malignant (Zhang et al. 2023). The spin coating method was used to create the
starch-hydroxyapatite thin film components, which have demonstrated exceptional
tensile strength, elongation, and modulus when applied to skin. Additionally, the
film is biodegradable and exhibits good biocompatibility with human blood lymphocyte cells (Pramanik et al. 2019).
2019), carbonated hydroxyapatite was
2016). Hydroxyapa-
2.2.1.4 Carbonaceous Sustainable Biomaterials
Carbon materials are gaining a lot of interest as a rapidly emerging class of highperformance materials in various scientific and technical domains for a variety of
biomedical uses, including prosthetic joints, scaffold building, bioimaging, implantation, tissue engineering, and bone engineering. They are ideal because of their
exceptional biological characteristics. Carbon quantum dots (CQDs) and their
composites, carbon nanotubes (CNTs) and their composites, carbon nanofiber
(CNF) reinforced composites, and graphene and its composites are examples of
carbonaceous materials (Kim et al.
to bind to SWCNT surfaces. This work demonstrated that 1 g of SWCNTs could
encapsulate 4 g of doxorubicin (DOX) on their surface; the drug delivery method
including loaded DOX is dependent on pH balance. Subsequent research by the
same group has introduced DOX loaded on SWCNT-PEG, which is less harmful to
mice and has good antitumor effects when administered intravenously (Liu et al.
2007, 2009). These strategies have multiple benefits, such as increased medication
efficacy, less adverse effects, and extended release for long-term illnesses thereby
increasing health outcomes (Trucillo 2024).
2024). Doxorubicin has been reported to be able
2.2.2 Synthetic Polymer Substrate
Even though natural polymers provide good scaffolds promoting cell proliferation
and adhesion, they still do not check all the criteria like the immunogenicity or
pathogen transmission and henceforth the clinical outcomes. Synthetic polymers
were derived with no immunogenicity, controlled structure and to mimic the extra
cellular matrix (Magnusson et al. 2011). Different types of synthetic polymers are
used according to their properties: Aliphatic polymers like PLA (Poly lactic acid),
PGA (Poly glycolide), Polyanhydrides, Polyphosphazenes, Polyurethanes,
Polyglycerol sebacate. PLGA is the polymerised product of PLA and PGA, widely
34 D. U. Meenakshi et al.
used for artificial bone-substitution and drug delivery (Duoyi et al. 2021). Though it
is advantageous than other polymers, its hydrophobicity limited the cell adhesion.
Therefore, substance like fibronectin, vitronectin were added to enhance the cell
adhesion (Rentsch et al.
changed patient
care by boosting therapeutic efficacy, decreasing adverse effects,
). The capacity to modify drug-release patterns has
2012
and enhancing patient compliance. Synthetic polymer substrate will surely continue
to be at the forefront of innovation in pharmaceutical research as it develops, offering
adaptable answers to challenging drug delivery problems and advancing medical
science. Bio-sustainable materials, like polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs), and
polylactides (PLA) are obtained from renewable sources and have characteristics
that make
and tissue engineering scaffolds (Coiai et al.
non-toxic.
them appropriate for nanomedicine, packaging, controlled drug delivery
2021). PLA, is recyclable, cheap, and
PHAs, in general, are fully biodegradable, making them epitome for the
circular economy (Elmowafy et al. 2019). Among the commercially available PHAs,
poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate) (PHBV) is particularly versatile and
is utilized in several implant devices (like grafts, stents, patches, pins, etc.,), tissue
engineering scaffolds, and controlled drug release. In general, these biodegradable
materials offer a range of possibilities for controlled release systems, and
sustainability as well as usages in various industries (Pramanik
centered
approach, the combination of quercetin (QCT) and gemcitabine (GMC) has
2023). In a patient-
shown a synergistic effect in inhibiting the migration of pancreatic cancer cells. This
treatment strategy involves loading GMC and QCT together into biodegradable
nanoparticles made of poly (lactic-co-glycolic acid) and enhanced with hyaluronic
acid (HA; PPHA NPs). These nanoparticles are designed to specifically target cancer
ssed C
cells by interacting with the overexpre
h,
approac
patients may benefit from a more effective and precise treatment that aims
D44 receptor. By utilizing this targeted
to combat pancreatic cancer cell migration while minimizing potential side effects on
healthy tissues. (Serri et al.
2019).
2.2.3 Biodegradable Metal Substrates
Metals and their alloys are used to make bone implants and using biodegradable
metals will reduce the invasiveness of the procedure since after implantation they
degrade in the body and does not require removal (Dorozhkin 2015). They must be
biocompatible, light and corrosion resistance mainly. Magnesium, Iron, Manganese,
Calcium, Zinc are most used and these aid in metabolic functions inside the body and
has much advantageous properties than stainless steel, which is currently used in
2023).
used medicine for implantable devices (Patricia et al.
care, the development of alloys such as Zn-Cu-Mg, which exhibit enhanced biocompatibility and controlled biodegradability, is crucial. It is essential to monitor the
degradation of these alloys carefully, as rapid degradation could potentially elevate
metal concentrations above safe levels, leadin g to toxicity risks for patients. This
highlights the importance of selecting materials that not only support patient health
but also ensure their safety throughout the treatment process (Zibo et al.
In considering patient
2017).
2 Prospects of Biodegradable Material: Sustainable and Patient-Centric… 35
2.2.4 Encapsulants and Adhesives Biodegradable Electronic
and Sensing Devices
In vivo sensors and monitoring devices have been developed over decades, but their
biocompatibility remains a concern. Biodegradable materials like dielectrics,
semiconductors and conductors are being currently employed to fabricate devices
(Hosseini et al. 2021). Green electronics are being developed to promote environmental sustainability using carbon-based frames (Min et al. 2023). Recently, elasticity has emerged a major criterion to make electronics. Polyester elastomers are
mainly used in tissue engineering and drug delivery which can mimic the elastin
properties. Its biodegradability is different than other biopolymers which undergo
bulk degradation.
Conventional biomedical methods are fast evolving to slot in green technology,
resulting in bio-inspired materials in alternative to animal-based goods for bio-based
leather and food (Zuppolini et al. 2022). Research has focused on creating micro- or
nanofibers for cell growth, studying the effects of released chemicals (Malviya et al.
2021). Pre-clinical studies used FDA-approved biodegradable nanofibers to look at
the influence of 5-azacytidine (5-AZA) on muscle gene up regulation (Fasolino et al.
2017). Grafting of cellulose nano fibers (T-CNF) with soy protein were designed
using a TEMPO-mediated oxidation process, a biodegradable one (Abdul Khodir
et al. 2022).
The polyester elastomers undergo linear mass loss through surface degradation
leading to retain its strength while degradability and achieving sustained release
(Chen et al. 2022). Furthermore, they improve adherence and decrease the frequency
of dose, which helps with patient compliance issues, especially in chronic illnesses
where frequent dosing can be stressful. Therefore, by providing tunable features that
allow for exact control over drug encapsulation and release, these biomaterials may
change the landscape of drug delivery in near future. By creating new fields such as
scaffolds, thin films, hydrogels, nanocomposites, cryogels, drug delivery systems,
etc., and using them to treat patients in different ways, biomaterials transformed
tissue engineering and drug delivery towards patient centric approach. The ease of
administration and painlessness of biomaterials may soon cause them to opt for these
novel drug delivery systems. Another promising development in biomaterials is the
development of 3D printing technologies as discussed elsewhere in the chapter, will
enable the production of biological substitutes for patient application in a variety of
treatments, including ready-made biological tissues. The less procedure time and the
need for personalization in patient care can be met with these new strategies.
2.3 Regenerative Medicine Applications of Smart Materials
Towards Patient-Oriented Approach
Biodegradable polymers are now acknowledged as a sustainable and versatile group
of materials, with important implications for regenerative medicine when integrated
into 4D printing technology. The use of these polymers, designed to naturally
36 D. U. Meenakshi et al.
degrade, offers numerous applications that are greatly reshap ing the realms of tissue
engineering, regenerative treatments, and patient-focused healthcare. By utilizing
the body’s innate healing abilities, regenerative medicine has enormous potential to
treat a wide range of diseases. Smart materials are essential for the advancement of
regenerative medicine applications because they provide novel approaches to tissue
creation, medication delivery, and in
dividualized treatment plans (Zhang et al.
2022). Sustainable biomaterials 3D printing has become a game changer, providing
patient centr
a
ic approach to tailored treatment plans. Environmentally friendly and
sustainable biomaterials promote tissue regeneration by adhering to the guidelines of
patient centered care approach (Murphy and Atala 2014). 3D printing scaffolds and
implants are designed by using sustainable biomaterials to tailor each patient’s
needs. Better patient outcome and therapeutic response can be achieved by creating
these specialized concepts that are tailored to the patient therapeutic and anatomical
requirements.
Additionally, the use of sustainable biomaterials in 3D printing reduces the
reliance on traditional materials that may have adverse effects on patient health
and the environment. 3D printing has revolutionized design and manufacturing
sector by facilitating unprecedented design freedom and efficiency (Zhou et al.
2015). The commencement of 4D printing has made this method a step forward
by letting the user to design program in a specific way for the thing to function.
Stimulus-responsive materials and shape memory polymers allow 4D printing a
promising one to create adaptive equipment, and buildings, and biomedical devices.
4D printing incorporates self-assembling smart materials that can change according
to their surroundings and combine the best of 3D printing along with them. Various
industries, including regenerative medicine and healthcare, stand to gain largely
from this 4D printing technology (Sheikh et al. 2023).
In healthcare, 3D printing has previously made noteworthy progressions in tissue
engineering, and medical device manufacturing. Nevertheless, the integration of 4D
printing takes this evolution to a whole new level. Through the addition of a
temporal dimension to 3D-printed structures, smart materials can act in response
to stimuli like humidity, temperature, light, and mechanical forces, permitting the
printed structures to change shape, self-organize, and carry out dynamic activities
(Kantaros 2022).
he field o
In t
f medical device manufacturing and tissue engineering, 3D printing
has achieved a noteworthy progression. Integrating 4D printing into 3D technique
get hold of these evolution to a next level. Adding a temporal dimensional structure
to 3D-printed materials, and smart materials will result in a greater response to
external stimuli such as temperature, humidity, mechanical forces, and light, will
make possible the printed structures to self-organize, alter shape, and perform
dynamic activities (Kantaros 2022)
Shape-modifying
characteristics is the major in 4D printing process, achieved
.
through designing and establishing intelligent smart materials. The designed smart
materials can either be shape memory or stimulus-responsive, in which the smart
materials can reinstate to a specific shape during stimulation or undergo reversible
alterations in their qualities or form during external trigger, respectively (Sheikh
2 Prospects of Biodegradable Material: Sustainable and Patient-Centric… 37
et al. 2023). Shape memory polymers (SMPs), liquid crystal elastomers (LCEs),
magnetic shape memory alloys (MSMAs), biodegradable polymers, and cell-laden
biomaterials are among the most commonly used raw materials in the 4D printing
process. They are also employed in the production of complex 3D structures that
function in response to external stimuli and they have shape modifying properties
(Wu et al.
stimuli or additives like SMPs, they can help them regain thei r original shape (Prevot
et al.
procedures, whi
implants (Zhang et al. 2022).
In addition, the employment of biodegradable polymers in 3D and 4D printing
lets for the design of drug delivery systems, and tissue scaffolds, and temporary
supports, that liquefy as new tissue grows, reducing the requirement for additional
measures to take out implants (Wu et al.
4D printing grasp enormous promise for designing bio-mimetic tissue structures,
highly functional that can progress and change over time, mimic king the human
body’s natural curative processes. In general, 4D printing usage in regenerative
medicine recommends highly developed alternatives for tissue scaffolds that
strongly imitate real tissue dynamics and support cell growth, proliferation, and
differentiation. It also facilitates the exact release of therapeutic drug compounds
during physiological changes, resulting in enhanced regeneration therapy and
optimized outcomes. Also, 4D printing lets for the customization of patient-specific
implant, plummeting complications and enhancing long-term results. Employing
smart materials in 4D printing progresses adaptability, precision, and personalization
of printed structures, thereby boosting the field of regenerative medicine (Kantaros
and Piromalis 2021; Mathur et al. 2023;Quetal. 2023). Sustainable 3D printed
biomaterials have enormous potential to transform healthcare applications towards a
patient-centric model. Eco friendly plant-based polymers are used to produce
customized 3D printing implants and medical equipment. This approach not only
improves treatment results but also complies with environmental responsibility and
sustainability standards (Goyanes et al. 2015).
2018). When 3D printed temporary implants come into touch with heat
2018). LCEs can be utilized to print complex structures that replicate real tissue
le MSMAs can be utilized in magnetic field-responsive devices, and
2016). The usage of cell-laden materials in
2.4 Bio-degradable Piezoelectrics for Medical Implants
Advancements in implanted medical devices and the internet of things (IoT) in
recent years lead diagnostics to patient centric approach rather than hospital-based
approach. Piezoelectric materials were initially used in electromechanical systems
due to their ability to generate electrical charges and strain when subje cted to
mechanical stress. These same characteristics have since made them influential in
the field of biomedical engineering. Nebulizers, implanted therapeutic devices, hand
pieces and ultrasonic actuators are examples of piezoelectric materials that work
under the same principle (Zaszczyńska et al. 2020). Piezoelectric materials were then
influenced by the integration of biodegradable materials and this integration was
considered as a technological revolution by biomedical scientists (Kamel 2022).
38 D. U. Meenakshi et al.
Biodegradable piezoelectric materials hold the advantage of mimicking the tissue
environmental characteristics as per the requirements of individual patient and hence
they are considered better for therapeutic applications with less adverse reactions.
This feature enables bio-sensing capabilities, real-time energy harvesting, and therapeutic effects for a range of disorders. By leveraging these materials, healthcare
providers can tailor treatment strat
personalized care
and targeted interventions. The application of piezoe lectric
egies to individual patients, promoting
materials in biomedical implants also influences various physiological cell functions,
including proliferation, differentiation, migration, and apoptosis. These adjustments
play a crucial role in tis sue regeneration and repair, ultimately enhancing the overall
ores t
well-being and recovery of patients. This patient-centric approach undersc
ce
importan
utilizing cutting-edge technologies to deliver more effective and
of
he
personalized healthcare solutions.
Piezoelectric reactions occur in different tissues like tendon, bone, cartilage,
ligament, dentin, skin, cornea, and sclera. Living cells own intrinsic piezo electricity
because of proteins. Comparison to quartz, bone has a higher piezoelectric constant.
Collagen elimination removes bone piezoelectricity, while demineralization
conserves it. Flexoelectricity of hydroxyapatite (HA) ceramic surfaces enhances
bone healing (Vasquez et al.
2018). Electrical sti mulation has enduring osteogenic
effects on mesenchymal stem cells. Low-intensity electrical current promotes collagen organization and angiogenesis in bone grafts, enhancing osteo-conductivity and
graft growth (Fonseca et al. 2019). Electrical stimulation influences pre-osteoblasts
and macrophages, rising osteogenesis (Srirussamee et al. 2019). Piezoelectricity has
a significant role in bone regeneration by triggering signaling pathways,
re-organizing dipoles, opening calcium channels, and enhancing bone healing at
different stages (Jacob et al. 2018). Piezoelectricity triggers calcineurin, which
de-phosphorylates nuclear factor of activated T-cells (NF-AT). The promotion of
bone healing is done using translation of growth factors like bone morphogenetic
protein (BMP) and transforming growth factor β (TGF β) (Goonoo and Luximon
2022).
PLLA i
iodegradable piezoelectric polymer, that is utilized in tissue engineer-
s a b
ing. A fiber-based scaffold based on piezoelectric PLLA enhances stem cell differentiation into osteoblasts in in vitro and bone production in vivo. The piezoelectric
charge on the scaffold’s surface can be provoked by ultrasonic waves to augment
bone repair and osteogenesis. PLLA piezoelectric nanofibers promote cartilage
regeneration. These nano-fiber tissue scaffolds in in-vivo self-
stimulate
TGF-signaling pathways, cell migration, and chondrogenesis required for cartilage
repair (Liu et al. 2022b)
Electrospun
.
hybrid membrane comprising glass-reinforced hydroxyapatite
granules (gHA) and PLLA polymer is used for bone regeneration (Santos et al.
2017). It showed enhanced osteoblastic cell activity and bone-bonding than pure
PLLA substrates. PLLA nanotubes functioned as a bio-soft piezoelectric interface in
cell culture studies uncovers that electro-mechanical contact with human cells
enhances cell differentiation and proliferation (Tai et al. 2021
PHB’s piezoelectric
).
properties and cellular sensitivity can be progressed by mix ing CNTs, HA, and
2 Prospects of Biodegradable Material: Sustainable and Patient-Centric… 39
barium titanate. Piezoelectric PHBV scaffolds enhance osteoblast development and
calcium deposition (Gorodzha et al.
2017). In a patient-centric approach to
healthcare, the utilization of innovative technologies such as Au-coated ZnO
nanorods and piezoelectric materials holds significant promise for improving treatment outcomes and enhancing patient well-being (Hoop et al. 2017).
2.5 Promising Areas of Biopolym er Applications and Patient
Centric Approaches
2.5.1 Wound Healing
The role of biodegradable biomaterials is contemporary in wound treatment
Biode-
protocols, offering sustainable, compatible, and efficient healing (Fig.
gradable biomaterials are especially promising in this field because of their efficient
compatibility and ability to support the natural healing process. Most of these
polymers as discussed are obtained from natural sources including plants, animals,
and microorganisms. Polysaccharide based biomaterials like chitosan, alginate and
protein derived biomaterials like collagen and gelatin are getting significant attention
in this field because of their unique characteristics to link in with the physiological
environment (Boateng et al.
2008). Peptides and proteins components (endogenous)
are vital for the process of wound healing because they support tissue repair,
infiltration, and regeneration cascades in the healing process. These natural biodegradable polymers because of their chemical composition (proteins,
polysaccharides) act as scaffolds for cell adhesion, proliferation, regeneration as
they have the capacity to mimic the extracellular matrix and thereby promotes tissue
regeneration cascades in the healing process. Gelatin derived from collagen is
frequently utilized as bandages for wounds. Another chemical component, keratin,
also plays an important role in tissue regeneration and it’s upregulated during wound
healing process. Hence, they are incorporated as one of the biomaterials in several
wound dressings eg. Keragel
®
and Keraderm® marketed products. Novel drug
delivery systems based on polysaccharides and keratin have been researched for
their potential role in tissue regeneration, cell migration and proliferation (Moholkar
2021).
et al.
Alginate and chitosan promote wound healing because of their effective
antimicrobial property in addition to other biological, physical, and chemical
characteristics (Bano et al. 2017). The structural and biological qualities of chitosan
are supportive to the process of gelation, electrospinning and 3D printing that’s
important characteristics for the production and function of scaffolds for wound
healing. It also can form films, hydrogels, fibers, and sponges and hence widely used
for tissue regeneration and repair process as it enables the biomaterials tissue
interface or receiving tissue to be shaped in the same way (Singh et al.
rmore, it permits the regeneration of primary tissue cells and stem cells, and
Furthe
the chemi cals are like the components of extra cellular matrix, which raises the
prospects of chemical modification to adjust and adaptable to the individual patient
requirements. Hence the application of chitosan in biomedical engineering is
2.2
).
2022).
40 D. U. Meenakshi et al.
Fig. 2.2 Biodegradable biomaterials in wound healing
outstanding. Chitosan is used in intra-abdominal surgery and healing procedure as it
has good surface bonding to the lesion as well as able to maintain hemostasis
(Koumentakou et al. 2020). Meanwhile, seaweed derived alginate also possesses
gel like
consistency like chitosan and hence holds the moisture content effectively
that supports one of the ideal requirements of the wound healing scaffolds. Dextran,
another component, also plays a major role in the application of tissue engineering
because of its anti-thrombotic properties which stimulate angiogenesis and skin
regeneration. Starch, a natural biopolymer, is also the desirable component in
wound dressings because of its physical, chemical, and biodegradable properties
like chitosan.
It also enhances epithelial tissue regeneration that has an immense
therapeutic role in wound healing. It’s also attractive because of its high compatibility to the natural cellular environment. Several research works are going on to