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20 R. Srivastava
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Dr. Ruby Srivastava, a theoretical physicist, is the principal
investigator at CSIR-CCMB, Hyderabad, India. After fifteen
years in teaching, she pursued her PhD in 2010 and started her
research career with CSIR-IICT, Hyderabad, India. She has
published several solo authored papers, solo review articles, fourteen book chapters, and edited many books. She has solo authored
two books and co-authored one book project. One of her book
chapter is selected in the Web of Science™ Core Collection
(BKCI) by the Book Citation Index. Her research interests involve
Artificial Intelligence (AI) applications in Drugs and Diseases and
Reverse Vaccinology in mRNA Vaccines.
Prospects of Biodegradable Material: Sustainable and Patient-Centric Approach in the Realm of Biomedical Engineering
Dhanalekshmi Unnikrishnan Meenakshi , Alka Ahuja,
Selvasudha Nandakumar, Lekshmi Salim, Chilaka Baburao,
and Shah Alam Khan
Abstract
The creation of biodegradable materials that are both sustainable and patientfriendly has become essential in the current era of rapid industrialization and
increasing environmental awareness. In the domain of healthcare, science and
technology, collaborations have led to significant medical science advancements,
resulting in the development of numerous life-improving, life-enhancing, and
life-saving biomedical engineering innova tions. Biodegradable materials are
required for fostering environmentally friendly options and therefore biodegradable materials have a promising sustainable future. Biodegradable materials hold
great promise as environmentally friendly materials with a wide range of
applications. They are particularly advantageous in patient-centered implanted
biomedical devices because of their exceptional and distinctive qualities, which
include hydrophilicity, bioactivity, renewability, biocompatibility, and biodegradability. This chapter explores a few of the main fields, such as tissue
engineering and drug delivery systems, where biodegradable materials are having
an enormous impact. It also highlights the technological breakthroughs in biodegradable materials, which combine stimuli responsive materials with 3D and 4D
printing to create dynamic, patient-specific biodegradable materials. It also briefly
addresses the current trend and instances of biodegradable materials-based
sensors for medical therapeutic, diagnostic, and body monitoring applications.
The major technological obstacles to the clinical use of biodegradable mat erials
have also been covered. Des pite the promising prospects, the clinical utilization
2
D. U. Meenakshi (✉) · A. Ahuja · L. Salim · S. A. Khan (✉)
College of Pharmacy, National University of Science and Technology, Muscat, Oman
e-mail: dhanalekshmi@nu.edu.om; shahalam@nu.edu.om
S. Nandakumar · C. Baburao
Department of Biotechnology, Pondicherry University, Puducherry, India
#
The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2025
R. Malviya, S. Sundram (eds.), Sustainable Green Biomaterials As Drug Delivery
Systems, Biomaterials, Bioengineering and Sustainability 1,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-79062-1_2
25
26 D. U. Meenakshi et al.
of biodegradable materials faces significant challenges such as rising prices,
aging populations, and a high burden of chronic illness linked to health-related
activities. To address these challenges, healthcare must completely change to
become patient-centered, preventive, evidence based, and proactive with an
emphasis on enhancing quality of life. Overall, this chapter provides a comprehensive overview of the scientific advancement, challenges, and promis
directions for the develo
pment of next generations of patient-centered and sus-
ing
tainable biodegradable materials.
Keywords
Biodegradable · Drug delivery · Biomedical engineering · Patient centric ·
Sustainable
2.1 Introduction
Rapid industrialization and heightened environmental consciousness in recent years
lead to the development of tailored biodegradable/sustainable materials that prioritize patient needs, ensuring optimal therapeutic outcomes while minimizing side
effects.
Pharmaceutical
patient oriented biomedical materials (Mohd et al.
biomaterials have shown great potential to revolutionize the biomedical field by
promoting sustainability and patient centered care. Additionally, the biodegradable
materials help in patient centric approach by reducing the adverse effects with long
term implantation. Unlike biodegradable implants, permanent implants need to be
removed through surgery. This surgical protocol is not convenient to the patients,
and it also carries the risk of infection or rejection with multiple unpredictable
complications. Hence, biodegradable materials provide a convenient and comfortable experience to the patients without the need for follow up surgeries and related
complications arising out of it (Abyzova et al. 2
implants interact together with the process of tissue repair and regeneration, offering
the best possible support for the healing process and perhaps shortening recovery
periods. Biodegradable scaffolds play a major role in the field of tissue engineering
and regenerative medicine by providing a basic framework for cell adherence,
proliferation, differentiation, and regeneration, as most of their components resemble
extracellular matrix (ECM) components, as discussed elsewhere in this chapter
(Olteanu et al. 2024). Biodegradable materials offer a promising solution to reduce
our environmental impact and have a bright future ahead if the demand for sustainable biomaterials continues to rise. Their exceptional and distinguished properties,
such as hydrophilicity, renewability, bioactivity, biodegradability, and biocompatibility, make them appropriate for patient-centered implanted biomedical devices.
Some polymers, such as polyesters, polyanhydrides, and polyurethanes, are
engineered to break down drugs in a controlled manner by interacting with
industries and health workers are focusing on the advancement of
).
2023
).
023
Physiologically, biodegradable
In recent years,
2 Prospects of Biodegradable Material: Sustainable and Patient-Centric… 27
biological matters. Some encompass copolymers of poly (lactic acid), poly(ε-caprolactone), and poly (glycolic acid) (Duoyi et al.
from petroleum
and other non-renewable resources, such synthetic polymers are
2021). As their derivation is
non-biodegradable. Biodegradable materials have also seen scientific and technological advancements, permitting for the design of patient-specific, dynamic
materials through the integration of stimulus responsive materials with 3D and 4D
printing and is briefly covered in this chapter. From orthopedic implants to cardiovascular stents, the use of biodegrad
able p
olymers is revolutionizing the fi
eld
of
medical device engineering. These polymers offer a biologically compatible alternative to traditional materials such as metals and ceramics, reducing the risk of devicerelated complications and enabling better long-term outcomes for patients (Fig.
2.1).
Fig. 2.1 A patient-centric approach utilizing biodegradable polymers involves the development of
sustainable health monitoring/medical devices or drug delivery systems that prioritize patient
comfort, safety, and convenience. By incorporating biodegradable polymers, these devices can be
designed to gradually degrade within the body, reducing the need for additional procedures for
removal. This approach not only enhances patient compliance and overall experience but also aligns
with sustainable and environmentally friendly practices in healthcare
28 D. U. Meenakshi et al.
This chapter also discusses the prominent impact of biodegradable materials in the
field of tissue engineering and drug delivery systems. Researchers can tailor the
composition, degradation kinetics, and mechanical properties of these materials to
optimize performance for various therapeutic purposes. From drug delivery systems
capable of controlled release to implantable devices engineered for specific
anatomical sites, the adaptability of biodegradable mat
for personalized medicine
with large surface-area-todrug administration, like matrix stability, molecular solubility, and specific
functionalities (like optical, electrical, magnetic). Novel smart device designs in
biomedical applications like in vivo imaging, molecular targeting, bio-sensing, gene
delivery, artificial implants, and cancer therapy, offer considerable benefits for
environment, industry, and
moting
the regeneration of functional tissues and organs as mentioned before. They also
mimic the cellular environment and provide support for cell adhesion, multiplication, growth, and differentiation. After some days, these scaffolds degrade by
internalization and are replaced by the newly formed cells without the mark of any
differentiation and thus help biologically to restore the organ function effectively.
This approach holds significant promise for organ transplantation, wound healing,
and cartilage regeneration (Olteanu et al. 2024). These materials also hold the
potential to significantly change healthcare delivery and medical pract ice in the
coming years because they offer safer, more effective and eco-friendly treatment
options to the patients. Continued research and innovation in this field could unlock
the limitless potential of biodegradable materials to address unmet medical needs
and elevate patient outcomes. Sustainable biomaterials are always compatible with
tissue environment, biodegradable and allow faster resorption (Trinath et al. 2020).
biomaterials based on their compo sition, sources and applications in drug delivery
and biomedical engineering across various medical specialties, such as wound
healing and cancer treatment. The present trend and examples of biodegradable
materials-based on sensors for therapeutic, diagnostic, and body monitoring
applications is also discussed. The potential impact of sustainable biomaterials on
healthcare is immense, as they hold the promise of personalized treatments that cater
to individual patient requirements, providing hope for improved treatment effectiveness, reduced side effects, and a more promising outlook for medical care.
healt
In the field of tissue engineering, biodegradable polymers serve as scaffolds for
This chapter also briefly explains about the benefits and features of sustainable
hier
lives
and targeted interventions (Trucillo
volume ratio and small sizes can be engineered to tailor
societ
y via eco-friendly, sustainable approaches, pro-
and a cleaner world.
erials opens new avenues
2024). Nano particles
2.2 Sustainable Green Biomaterials
Due to the unique properties sustainable biomaterial are being efficiently employed
in technologies like tissue engineering and drug delivery. Tissue engineering is a
discipline which work with combination of engineering, materials, and cells to
restore, maintain, improve or replace different type of biological tissues. In short,
2 Prospects of Biodegradable Material: Sustainable and Patient-Centric… 29
tissue engineering develops biological substitutes. Scientists have investigated
renewable and organic material alternatives to embark upon this problem. In recent
years, “bio-sustainability” has gained attention in pharmaceutical, and biomedical
research. Developing “green,” sustainable materials that perform as well as a
traditional ones is being the great challenge. During novel product designing,
green biomaterial ensures stability, quality, efficac
polymer
sector’s environmental effect can aid accomplish today’s greater sustain-
y, and safety. Reducing the
able development goals. Scientists are constantly searching for better ways to create
sustainable polymers, which opens the door to green materials derived from biomass
or other natural sources.
2.2.1 Naturally Derived Polymers and Polymer Substrates
Scientists have focused on both animal and plant sources of biopolymers,
incorporating chitosan, hyaluronic acid, collagen, silk, alginates, arabic gum, and
dextrans (Liu et al.
processing methods like extraction and purification are generally required for these
materials, which can augment costs and decrease yield. Cellulose, starch, hemicellulose, keratin, lignin, and silk fibroin are few examples of renewable resource-based
bio-sustainable polymers that have demonstrated capabilities based on biodegradability, affordability, and biocompatibility. Such biopolymers are quite costeffective, and eco-friendly as they are made from biomasses that are derived from
industrial or agricultural wastes (Liu et al.
skin tissue engine ering (skin burns, wound healing etc.), bladder tissue engineering,
cardiovascular tissue engineering and scaffolding. Natural biomaterials are of two
types: polysaccharide nature (chitosan, alginate, carrageen, cellulose, pectin, agarose, and hyaluronic acid) and protein nature (collagen, gelatin, silk, keratin,
and fibrin). Due to their enhanced performance, functionality, and reproducibility
co
red to natural biomaterials, synthetic biomaterials have attracted researchers
mpa
for use in various technologies. Examples of such materials are Poly lactic acid
(PLA), Poly lactic-co-glycolic acid (PLGA), Poly-p-dioxanone (PDS), Poly glycolic
acid (PGA), Poly (ethylene succinate) (PES), Poly (butylene succinate) (PBS).
Utilizing supercritical fluids for polymer dissolution without using organic solvents
is a greener technology with considerabl e environmental and medicinal benefits.
Different research groups are evaluating supercritical fluid methods (SCF) to create
pharmacological carriers with nutraceutical (e.g., vitamins, CoQ10) or inorganic
compounds of growing interest (Kankala et al.
alginates, and chitosan, because they do not negatively influence biocompatibility,
and hydrophilicity, which are significant to control molecular release processes.
Diffusion processes mediated by matrix characteristics can specifically target
drugs like doxorubicin into exact tissue sites, reducing collateral effects during
chemotherapy (Martău et al. 2019). Plant-derived extracts suggest anti-inflammatory
characteristics and are a greener approach for synthesizing copper, silver, and gold
nano particles (Thiruvengadam et al.
2022a; Hong et al. 2020; Sun et al. 2020
2022a).
Biomaterials are used in areas like
These methods are ideal for
2021).
2019).
However, additional
).
30 D. U. Meenakshi et al.
2.2.1.1 Protein Based Sustainable Biomaterials
Collagen, gelatin and keratin are protein-based biomaterials used in drug delivery
and tissue engineering. Collag en molecule constitutes three polypeptide chains,
entwined like a three-stranded rope. There is a unique twist in the opposite direction
in every chain. The main factor influencing the development of a helix is the amount
of glycine and amino acid residues. The primary forces holding the strands together
are covalent bonds and hydrogen bonding between neighbouring CO and NH
molecules. The fundamental collagen molecule is a rod-like molecule with a molecular weight of around 300 kDa and dimensions of roughly 3000 and 15 A, respectively. Glycine, proline, and hydroxyproline are the three main amino acids found in
the triple helix structure. Glycine, proline, and X—any amino acid—make up the
pattern. Amino acids cause the collagen to perform certain tasks. The h elical
structure is held together by hydrogen bonds, which connect peptide bonds (Shenoy
2022). In the field of drug delivery to encourage the creation of bones, collagen
et al.
film and matrix were used as gene delivery vehicles. To track the growth of bones
and changes in carrier collagen’s absorbent state, a composite of collagen and
recombinant human bone morphogenetic protein 2 (rhBMP-2) was developed as a
patient centric approach. Whereas collagen alone did not result in any bone development, the rhBMP-2/collagen only implant caused active bone production. Collagen matrix that was loaded with bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) and near
osteogenic cells resulted in direct osteo induction, however cartilage formation
was not triggered and hence raised the concern towards patient benefits (Khan and
Khan 2013). In the field of tissue engineering hydrogel was made with recombinant
human collagen and carboxylated chitosan using 1 ethyl-3 (3-dimetyl) aminopropyl
carbodiimide as a crosslinking agent. Hydrogel tested on Sprague Dawley rats for
gene expression on extracellular membrane- associated proteins were measured by
qRT-PCR and for wound healing capacity as a prospect of sustainable biomaterials
in the clinical practice. This study revealed the expression of collagen 1, collagen
3 and integrin and hence the effectiveness of sustainable biomaterial. That means
developed hydrogel has good wound healing capacity with creation of environment
for adhesion, spreading, migration and proliferation of fibroblast cells (Yang et al.
2021)
ecently, technology suppliers have created a variety of customized (patient
. R
centric approach) wound dressings intended especially for the treatment of chronic
wounds, demonstrating the medicinal application of various extracted sustainable
collagens. They hope that rate of chronic wound closure will rise and clinical results
will be much improved by these customised dressings (Zhao et al. 2023).
Bioengineered silk, synthesized using recombinant systems in several organisms,
recommends a sustainable alternative to traditional silk harvesting. Functioning of
silk spidroin proteins with peptides such as DOX and H2.1 are used to design
targeted drug delivery systems. For instance, composite silk spidroin sphere s can
deliver cancer medication especially to breast cancer cells expressing the HER2
receptor (Maity et al. 2020). Turkey tendon collagen, a squander product from the
chicken industry, can be processed like sponge scaff olds that could release
medicines such as prilocaine hydrochloride. Gelatin, a derivative from collagen,
can be synthesized as drug delivery hydrogels, such as those utilized to deliver anti-