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9 Green Catalysts in the Synthesis of Biomaterials for Biomedical Applications 225
Phosphorene, often known as black phosphorus (BP), is a two-dimensional
(2D) substance that has acquired significant attention and is being paid to several
contemporary research topics. Its distinctive qualities include an adjustable bandgap
width, exceptional surface activity, advantageous on/off current ratios, excellent
biocompatibility, rapid biodegradation and infrared-light responsiveness. Distinguish this material from conventional two-dimensional materials. BP’s applicability
in the biomedical field has been overgrown recently, especially in cancer, bone, skin,
nerve, kidney, and biosensing-related treatments (Liu et al.
2021).
MXene, a two-dimensional substance, can be produced in various ways. The
synthesis technique determines MXene ’s electrical conductivity, surface functional
groups, thermal stability, and other features. MXene is currently used in tissue
engineering and regenerative medicine due to its hydrophilicity, light solid absorbance, photothermal conversion capabilities and vast surface area. MXene can
rebuild nerves, skin, bones, and other tissues. MXene-based scaffolds can be
employed for tumour ablation via Photothermal therapy (PT T), new bone production, and antimicrobial compounds. MXene also uses electrical stimulation to release
drugs efficiently in wound-healing regions. Furthermore, MXenes have been used to
develop artificial nerves with implantable neural interfaces and high electrical
conductivity. Recently, the tetrapropylammonium bromide (TPABr) high electrical
conductivity of MXene has been used in muscle and cardiac tissues (Park et al.
2023).
Transition metal dichalcogenides (TMDCs) contain transition metal atoms like
Mo, W, and Re sandwiched covalently between two hexagonal planes of chalcogen
atoms such as Se, S, and Te. Solid and powerful chemical bonds exist inside each
layer, yet bonds between layers are fragile. As a result, the crystals have a simple
primary fissure, lubricity, and determined anisotropy, which explains why the
scientific community is so interested in this family of chemicals. Bone regeneration
scaffolds composed of TMDC compo unds demonstrated increased mechanical
strength, positioning them as viable materials for tissue engineering scaff old design
and 3D printing (Anju and Mohanan 2021).
is a well-studied material in the TMDC family due to its resilience. MoS
MoS
2
has a unique combination of atomic-scale thickness, spin-orbit solid coupling, direct
tunable bandgap, and electrical and mechanical properties, making them promising
candidates for basic research. These intriguing capabilities can impact optoelectronics, nanomedicine, DNA sequencing, customized medicine, therapies, and other
biomedical purposes (Choi et al. 2017).
The inadeq
uate auto-healing and regeneration capacity of human bone
necessitates using bone regeneration scaffolds. Various osteoinductive materials
have been considered for this purpose, with TMDC-based compounds receiving
the most attention recently. TMDC-based materials can create promising biocompatible scaffolds with impressive renewal capacity. One such study reported MoS
nanosheets formed on the strut surface of bioceramic material, demonstrating the
properties of a potential dual functional scaffold with photothermal therapeutic
efficacy. In vivo, the scaffold favourably allowed osteogenic bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells (BMSCs) to proliferate and differentiate (Li et al.
2017).
It is a
2
2
226 M. Krishani et al.
viable clinical technique for effectively treating tumour-induced bone abnormalities.
A further theory associated with TMDC family materials is their ability to substitute
3D printing inks. Non-hazardous water-based inks were created using exfoliated 2D
materials. Grotta et al. found that by employing MoS
nanosheets, they could
2
effectively formulate mechanically strong and chemically stable 3D-printed inks
(Grotta et al. 2017).
Ordered micropores, high surface area, stability, tunable acidity and active site
access are the attractive properties of the porous nanomaterial. Zeolite, metal-organic
framework (MOF) and mesoporous silica nanomaterials like Santa Barbara Amorphous (SBA-15) and Mobil Crystalline Materials (MCM-41) are some examples of
porous nanomaterials which are used as a green catalyst in biomaterial synthesis in
biomedical applications (Gómez-lópez et al.
2020).
SBA-15 is assembled in hexagona l pores with uniform pore sizes up to 30 nm,
and it also acts as a carrier of large biomolecules like proteins. It has more structural
stability, which helps in premature protein degradation from body fluids and
provides localized and sustained release of therapeutics (Gkiliopoulos et al. 2022).
Zhou. P et al. prepared a composite scaffold for bone tissue engineering using
SBA-15 nanoparticle, in which rhBMP-2 was incorporated into SBA-15 to treat
bone defects. The developed composite scaffold displayed better biocompatibility,
bioactivity and antibacterial activity. It also induced in-vitro osteogenic differentiation and in vivo ectopic ossification (Zhou et al. 2014).
A multidisciplinary approach is used by tissue engineering and regenerative
medicine to develop and use novel materials to treat various tissue abnormalities.
Appropriate tissue regeneration usually requires both positive cellular activity and
associated biocompatibility. It could be the outcome of carefully choosing a platform
from the startling number of structural options with different porosity features (pore
size, connectivity, etc.). Zeolite is a type of porous structure recognized as a
microporous tectosilicate and may be used in tissue engineering ap plications to
create a biological microenvironment. Furthermore, zeolite has shown great promise
in wound dressing and tooth- and bone-oriented scaffolds. Zeolitic materials have a
distinct character due to their wide variety of composition and hierarchical pore
structure, mainly used for tissue engineering applications (Zarrintaj et al. 2020).
9.2.4 Green Catalyst from Heteropolyacids
Heteropolyacids (HPAs) are inorganic chemicals with remarkable potential as green
catalysts. These metal-oxygen compounds have unique catalytic characteristics due
to their redox activity and high acidity. One of the primary benefits of employing
HPAs as a catalyst is that they are environmentally friendly. Unlike conventional
catalysts, HPAs are safe and can be utilized in mild reaction conditions. Hence, HPA
are suitable for use as green catalysts. HPAs operate as catalysts in various processes, including hydrogenation, oxidation, esterification and dehydration. They are
also utilized in polymer and pharmaceutical productions. In addition to their environmental credentials, HPAs have several other benefits as catalysts. They are
9 Green Catalysts in the Synthesis of Biomaterials for Biomedical Applications 227
exceedingly firm and used repeatedly without losing catalytic activity. They are
highly selective towards specific reactions, leading to less waste and increased
efficiency (Zhang et al.
2019b; Mokhtar et al. 2022; Khalaf et al. 2024). HPAs are
composed of nanometric transition metal-oxygen octahedral anions. They form a
steady and tightly packed backbone of polymeric oxoanions as a fundamental
organization and exhibit various configurations. HPAs with a Keggin-type structure
are the most investigated and employed, notably as acid catalysts, because of their
accessibility and chemical firmness (Escobar et al.
2021).
9.3 Biomedical Applications
Using green catalysts for biomaterial synthesis is one of the significant achievements
in biomedical applications. Some of the green catalysts used for a synthesising
biomaterial in biomedical applications are shown in Fig.
9.2, including drug
Fig. 9.2 Green catalysts in biomedical applications
228 M. Krishani et al.
delivery, tissue engineering, polymer coating of biomaterials, bio sensor for clinical
diagnosis, wound healing and inks for bioprinting.
9.3.1 Drug Delivery
Drug delivery is one of the most extensively explored applications of carbon-based
nanomaterials. Considering the possibility of carbon nanomaterials and the countless
interactions, such as hydrophobic, pi-pi stacking and elect rostatic attraction, which
favour loading a wide range of drug molecules. The enormous surface area of these
carbon entities allows for great encapsulation and drug-loading efficiency. Carbon
dots are used for medicine delivery in addition to their other features. Considering
the biocompatibility, low relative cytotoxicity, and good cell uptake, they are
excellent materials for drug and gene delivery (Ku mar et al.
developed a Fe
/cellulose nanocomposite using magnetic iron oxide nanoparticles
3O4
synthesized from the biogenic method using an aqueous extract of spent tea waste.
The obtained nanocomposite showed controlled magnetic conveyability, biodegradability, toxic-free, and high absorption capacity, and it can be applied in metronidazole drug carrier systems (Azizi
2020). MCM-41 is a silica derivative with several
outstanding properties, including a highly arranged porous system with pore
diameters ranging from 2 to 10 nm, large pore volumes, high Brunauer-EmmettTeller (BET) surface areas, excellent sorption capacity, biocompatibility, toxic free,
exceptional thermal stability, and countless surface silanol groups. As a result,
MCM-41, with a regular mesoporous structure, is considered one of the most
excellent lay-on materials and drug carriers for many drugs/therapies (Shariatinia
and Pourzadi 2021).
Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) have considerable uses, particularly in drug
storage. More suitable drug carriers are needed for effective drug delivery in vitro
and in vivo—bio-metal organic frameworks (Bio-MOFs) effectively extend MOFs.
Biomolecule linkers and biocompatible metal cations can be used to create
bio-MOFs. These materials can be effective medication carriers in the human body
without adverse health impacts.
The massive MOF materials employed for medication delivery caused compatibility issues within the human body. Over time, nano-sized MOF materials have
become more viable for drug storage and release (Sattar and Athar 2018).
Hyperbranched polyglycidol, a biocompatible and biodegradable polymer used in
drug delivery systems, is obtained using Algerian montmorillonite clay as a catalyst
(El-Kebir et al. 2016).
2020). Azizi A. et al.
9.3.2 Polymer Coating
Cardiovascular stents are often coated with a medication designed to bear the artery
physically and, more recently, to decrease extravagant scar tissue generation attributable to the arterial wall’s exposure to the balloon. To help with drug delivery to the
9 Green Catalysts in the Synthesis of Biomaterials for Biomedical Applications 229
stent, a polymer coating has been created to prevent the drug from washing off
during device deployment, giving accurate loading and firm release of the drug
(Driver
2012; Gobalakrishnan et al. 2021). Hataminia F et al. used Fe
3O4
nanoparticles as a novel catalyst to create thermoplastic as a stable gel coating on
cardiovascular stents. The oxidation of starch by iron oxide nanoparticles as a
catalyst was investigated in that research (Hataminia et al. 2022
have substantial
advantages in various applications, including catalysts, since
). Metal oxides
changes in surface characteristics impact the material’ s bandgap energy (Saleh
2020). Iron oxide nanoparticles are familiar due to their low toxicity and production
costs. The application of nanoparticles in polymer composites to increase mechanical properties is prevalent. Indeed, at acidic pH, the electrostatic interaction between
the p ositively charged Fe
nanoparticles’ outer surface and the negatively charged
3O4
starch’s oxygen atoms improves their mechanical characteristics (Dung et al. 2009).
Furthermore, after oxidation, COOH plays an essential role in electrostatic
interactions on the surface of NP. COOH is unsuitable because it enhances
the structure’s hydrophilicity, yet it is pretty effective for electrostatic coupling on
the NP surface. The carbonyl groups generated by the oxidation reaction boost the
polymer’s hydrophobicity, and both functional groups upgrade their characteristics
overall (Hataminia et al.
2022).
9.3.3 Biosensor
Preliminary detection of diseases can improve the efficacy of therapies, such as
prompt diagnosis and treatment. Biosensors, or devices incorporating biological
recognition components to identify disease biomarkers, have been used for superior
health management. The most recent advancements in biosensor technology have
led to the evolution of exact, error-free, sturdy, and speedy devices that can recognize disease-dependent changes in analyte levels, allowing for quick diagnosis and
2019).
treatment of numerous diseases (Akolpoglu et al.
Biosensors are analytical
instruments that detect biomarkers and produce quantitative readings of a target
substance in a sample. Biosensors are primarily based on biomolecular recognition,
which creates a quantifiable signal. This data is created when the target analyte
interacts with a biological receptor, such as enzymes, antibodies, or DNA (de Assis
et al. 2023). Enzymes, metal nanoparticles synthesized using green methods,
graphene and graphene oxide and nano cellulose can act as green catalysts mentioned earlier in this chapter. These green catalysts are widely applied in the
biosensors. Arginine deiminase is an enzyme that catalyzes the conversion of
L-arginine to ammonia and citrulline. Due to its specific activity on arginine,
Arginine deiminase is used in developing biosensors for arginine (Kawatra et al.
Arginase, L-arginine decarboxylase and urease are the other enzymes used in
2022).
biosensors for arginine (Berketa et al. 2022). Nanocellulose, as a natural
nanomaterial, has unique properties that make it a suitable choice for use in
biosensing. It is a renewable, biodegradable, readily accessible, and adaptable
material with excellent mechanical, thermal, and physical-chemical properties.
230 M. Krishani et al.
Nanocellulose’s large surface area enables extensive chemical modification and
greater immobilization of biological recognition receptors. The plethora of customizable functional groups on the surface of nanocellulose presents potential
opportunities for surface functionalization and customization of a biosensor to
satisfy specific electro-catalytic demands (Khorsandi et al.
2024). Nanocellulose-
based biosensors detect high urea levels in blood, which helps prevent kidney failure
(Nwosu et al.
detection, including dengue fever (Pirich et al.
2020). Nanocellulose-based biosensors are also used in disea se
2017) and Staphylococcus aureus
detection in blood serum (Ranjbar and Shahrokhian 2018). Bollella et al. synthesized
silver and gold nanoparticles using quercetin as an environmentally friendly reducing agent and showed better lactose detection results (Bollella et al. 2017). Singlestranded DNA is quickly immobilized on the surface of graphene layers by π-π
interactions between the hexagonal cells of graphene or graphene oxide and the
aromatic bases. These hybrids are biosensors for detecting DNA sequences
connected to numerous diseases and hereditary disorders (Georgakilas et al.
2016).
The biosensors currently developed for diagnosis purposes using green catalysts are
listed in Table
9.1.
9.3.4 Tissue Engineering
During regular metabolic processes, unstable, extremely reactive, and partially
reduced oxygen atoms are produced. These chemically reactive molecules, reactive
oxygen species (ROS), are cruci al for controlling nearly every biological process
(Kim et al. 2021). ROS is essential for preserving intracellular homeostasis because
it regulates transcription factors and phosphorylates proteins at physiological
Table 9.1 List of biosensors developed using green catalysts and its source
Green catalyst used Source Analyte References
Copper oxide nanoparticles Caesalpinia
Copper nanoparticles Ocimum
Gold nanoclusters Onion membranes Sucrose Bagal-Kestwal et al.
Gold nanoparticles Eggshell
Silver nanoparticles Quercetin Lactose Bollella et al. (2017)
Gold nanoparticles Papaya juice
Silver nanoparticles Araucaria
Zinc oxide nanoparticles Peach extract Glucose Muthuchamy et al.
Graphene oxide with gold
nanoparticles
bonducella
tenuiflorum
membrane
angustifolia
Rose water Glucose Tabrizi
Vitamin B
Glucose Dayakar et al. (2017)
Glucose Zheng et al. (2010)
L-lysine Yu et al. (2019)
Paracetamol Zamarchi and Vieira
Sukumar et al. (2020)
2
(2015)
(2021)
(2018)
and Varkani
(
2014)
9 Green Catalysts in the Synthesis of Biomaterials for Biomedical Applications 231
quantities and signals (Sassetti et al. 2021). Thus, cell development and survival
depend on keeping these intracellular ROS homeostasis (Rhee
2006). Accumulation
of ROS damages proteins, lipids, DNA, and RNA and is crucial for cytokine and
growth factor signalling (Jastrzębska et al. 2021). Maintaining the proper equilibrium of reactive oxygen species (ROS) is vital in tissue engineering due to the
physiological properties of free radicals (Castro et al.
production of
ROS and modifies the degree of oxidative stress that cells go through
2021). MXene causes the
(Zheng et al. 2021). The ability to generate ROS has been extensively investigated
for several MXenes (Szuplewska et al. 2019; Jastrzębska et al. 2017; Lim et al.
2021). MXene and cells come into direct physiochemical contact, which causes
oxidative stress and ROS production, which in turn causes cellular damage and
eventual death (Szuplewska et al.
ial
its
potent
surface because of functional groups like Ti-O, Ti-OH, and Ti-F.
on
2019). S
ome MXene often has a negative zeta
These groups help MXene have a high affinity for cell surfaces and facilitate simple
chemical processes. Ti-F groups, mainly, are unstable at high pH values and rapidly
generate reduced iron species, followed by another redox reaction. ROS are produced by this complex redox process, which involves the termination of oxygen,
hydroxyl group and fluorine
a noticeably higher capaci
surfaces. Fe-layered titanium carbide MXene may have
ty for ROS formation since it elevates the quantity of TiO
on the MXene surface (Rosales et al. 2020).
Furthermore, MXenes with high conductivity can generate ROS by forming an
electron-transfer bridge with the lipid bilayer of cells. ROS are produced when direct
contact with MXenes, which transports electrons from the intracellular compartment
to the external environment despite the cell membrane’s insulation (Rasool et al.
2016). These findings suggest that MXene’s ability to affect cell survival and activity
can be helpful in tissue engineering (Park et al.
2023).
Graphene-based nanoparticles have also been utilized in tissue engineering to
repair injured connective tissue. For example, composites based on graphene oxide
(GO) and silk fibroin displayed better proliferation, adherence, and viability of
human periodontal ligament mesenchymal stem cells (PDLSCs) than silk fibroin
alone (Hasan et al. 2018).
he s
Using t
onochemical method, Kumar et al. developed carbon dot(CD)—based
nanomaterials for neural engineering. The investigations revealed excellent biocompatibility, even at low CD concentrations. Sonochemically produced CDs are considered more promising materials for biomedical and tissue engineering applications
due to their minimal cytotoxicity compared to chemical-based formulations (Kumar
et al. 2019).
al. developed an injectable BP hydrogel infused with carbon nanotubes
Liu et
(CNT) to enhance mechanical strength, electrical conductivity, and phosphate ion
release for bone tissue engineering. The hydrogel was created using biodegradable
and cross-linkable oligo(poly(ethylene glycol) fumarate) (OPF) polymer as the
primary matrix. CNTs are known to improve hydrogel conductivity and stimulate
cell proliferation. Crosslinkable CNT-PEG acrylate (CNTpega) improved gel
mechanics and conductivity. BPNSs were introduced to release phosphate ions
through in-situ phosphorus oxidation. In vitro experiments demonstrated that this
2
232 M. Krishani et al.
gel improves preosteoblast cell adhesion, prolifera tion, and osteogenic differentiation. The gel promotes osteogenic pathway gene expressions in preosteoblast cells
when stimulated with electricity. X-ray imaging revealed that the BP-CNTpega-gel
has outstanding in situ gelation ability and could potentially be used as injectable
formulations for bone applications such as posterolateral spinal fusion, femur
defects, and vertebral body cavities (Liu et al.
2020).
Chen et al. suggested a unique technique for developing a biomimetic hydrogel
scaffold with a dual-differential microenvironment for articular osteochondral defect
repair. Kartogenin is an effective chondrogenic drug, whereas atorvastatin has a
synergetic impact on cartilage development and bone regeneration. The upper
cartilage layer was created by grafting Kartogenin into gelatin using an enzyme
crosslinking reaction based on p-gt (HPA). The bone-specific microenvironment
was created by grafting atorvastatin into gelatin using a dual-crosslinked network
that included both enzyme crosslinking and glycidyl methacrylate-based photocrosslinking reactions as the lower subchondral bone layer. Including a tidemarklike middle layer promotes the creation of well-defined cartilage-bone integrated
architecture. Furthermore, in vitro investigations revealed a considerable mechanical
difference between three layers: successful drug grafting, high cytocompatibility,
and tissue-specific induced function. Meanwhile, in vivo investigations
demonstrated the feasibility of mending articular osteochondral lesions with
trilayered biomimetic hydrogel scaffolds by activating endogenous recovery,
indicating a possible alternative for future therapeutic therapy (Chen et al. 2024).
Osteoporo
s a condition that results in decreased bone density and bone
sis i
fragility; it is typically identified in older adults and has a protracted fracture healing
period (Pérez-Amodio and Engel n.d.). A biomimetic hydrogel of graphene and
chitosan can deliver anti-osteoporotic drugs when triggered with Near-infrared
(NIR) irradiation. Teriparatide, a popular osteoporosis drug, has minimal efficacy
when delivered systemically. However, local release has been shown to improve
outcomes. A study compared the effects of constant and pu lsatile Teriparatide
release on bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells in vitro, revealing that pulsatile
release showed better results. The hydrogel was tested in a bone defect in vivo, and it
found that NIR irradiation triggered pulsatile release of the encapsulated drugs. The
replicated localized release of Teriparatide promoted osteoporotic bone regeneration
by retaining the drug’s concentration in the therapeutic window while avoiding
undesired systemic adverse effects (Wang et al. 2021a, b)
Osteoarthritis
is a joint illness diagnosed in various pathological circumstances,
.
including cartilage loss and synovial inflammation. Anti-inflammatory drugs can
protect joint cartilage in the short term, but their effectiveness is limited. Whereas
surgery for joint replacement is effective, it comes with high risks of failure and
expensive costs (Jafari et al. 2021). Copper sulfide nanoparticles incorporating
dexamethasone sodium phospha te were produced using cell membrane coating for
osteoarthritis treatment. The coating layer comprises neutrophil and erythrocyte
membranes. Nanoparticles exhibited good biocompatibility, regulated drug release,
and photothermal conversion in vitro. Compared to free dexamethasone sodium
phosphate and drug-loaded nanoparticles without NIR, the ones triggered by
9 Green Catalysts in the Synthesis of Biomaterials for Biomedical Applications 233
external laser light had more anti-inflammatory effects. Nanoparticles may target
inflammatory joint locations by recognizing CD11a on neutrophil membranes. In
vivo studies on nanoparticle efficacy concluded that combining PTT with drug
release lowered cartilage degeneration and synovial inflammation (Xue et al.
2022).
Wang et al. developed an injectable HP-based (Gtn–HPA) hydrogel using an
oxidative coupling reaction of phenol moiety catalyzed by horse radish peroxidase
(HRP) and hydrogen peroxide (H
) for neural tissue engineering. This Gtn–HPA
2O2
hydrogel system offers an easy and effective approach to investigating cell functional responses in a 3D environment. It features outstanding cell adhesion, variable
mechanical properties, and in situ forming capacity. The results revealed that Gtn–
HPA hydrogel is a viable stem cell-based in vivo therapeutics method. It provides an
encouraging platform for regenerative uses of stem cells in tissue engineering
because of its biocompatibility and biodegradability. Injectable Gtn-HPA hydrogels
with mechanical characteristics that can be adjusted for 3D cell culture and differentiation repres ent a significant tactical tool for treating future brain injuries and
neurological conditions (Wang et al.
2010). Because of their flexible crosslinking,
Gtn-HPA hydrogels can control the migration and proliferation of adult neural stem
cells (aNSCs). In addition, Gtn-HPA hydrogels can favour neural cells by encouraging neuronal differentiation and upholding a greater degree of cell survival than
neuronal differentiation (Lim et al. 2012).
A scaffold for tissue engineering was developed by combining the carboxyl
group of HPA and the amino group of human-like collagen (HLC) using
N-hydroxysuccinimide (NHS) and 1-ethyl-3-(3-dimethylaminopropyl)carbodiimide hydrochloride (EDC) and followed by crosslinking with H
2O2
and
HRP. It is an injectable HLC-HPA hydrogel based on HLC. The developed
HLC-HPA hydrogel revealed good biodegradability and excellent biocompatibility,
as confirmed by in vitro cell viability and in vivo degradation studies. Interestingly,
the HLC-HPA hydrogel demonstrated anti-inflammatory activity in cultured
macrophages by increasing the secretion of the anti-inflammatory cytokine
interleukin-10, which was induced by lipopolysaccharide, and decreasing the
amount of pro-inflammatory cytokines tumour necrosis factor-α and interleukin-6.
On the other hand, HLC-HPA hydrogels displayed outstanding biocompatibility,
hemostasis, and a reduced inflammatory response in animal studies. Thus, there is
much encouragement for developing the HLC-HPA hydrogel for use in the biomedical domain (Gao et al. 2020). Some examples of green catalyst-based biomaterial
composite and its application in tissue engineering are listed in Table 9.2.
9.3.5 Wound Healing
Enzymes are essential in wound healing by dampening ROS, facilitating cell growth
and infiltration, averting microbial inflammation, and allowing in-built infection
detection systems (Guebitz and Nyanhongo 2018). Enzymes like laccases,
peroxidases, tyrosinases, and transglutaminases are commonly used to produce
wound dressing hydrogels. Enzymes’ specificity and selectivity and their capability
234 M. Krishani et al.
Table 9.2 List of green catalyst-based biomaterial in tissue engineering applications
Green chemistry based
biomaterial composite
Calcium phosphaterecombinant human bone
Polycaprolactone,
chitosan; and gelatin
Application Inference References
Bone tissue
engineering
Skin tissue
engineering
Toxic-free and environmentally
friendly solvents were used
Atom efficiency—a green
chemistry principle is applied in
Wang et al.
(2017a)
Gomes
2017)
et al. (
the production method
Chitosan and graphene
oxide composite
Healing-inspired collagen
targeting glue
Skeletal
muscle tissue
engineering
Skin tissue
engineering
Showed excellent
biodegradability and
biocompatibility
Atom efficiency—a green
chemistry principle is applied in
Jing et al.
(2017)
Jeon et al.
(2017)
the production method
Polyurethane/small
intestinal submucosa
Gellan gum Skeletal
Soft tissue
engineering
muscle tissue
Less cytotoxic product was
obtained
Toxic-free and environmentally
solvents were used
friendly
Da et al.
(2017)
Berti et al.
(2017)
engineering
in
Bhowmick
(2017)
et al.
Ranjbarvan
et al. (2018)
Tahriri et
(
2018)
al.
Badhe et al.
(2017)
Gelatin/sulfated or
nonsulfated hyaluronan
tissue
Skin
engineering
Beta vulgaris Skin tissue
engineering
Nanofluorohydroxyapatite/
poly(lactic-co-glycolic
tissue
Bone
engineering
acid)/
Chitosan and
composite
gelatin
Vascular
tissue
Atom efficiency—a green
chemistry
the
Less toxic
the synthesis
principle is applied in
production method
chemicals are used in
method
Atom efficiency—a green
chemistry principle is applied
the production
method
Showed enhanced biological and
mechanical properties
engineering
Bacterial cellulose Skin tissue
engineering
Hydroxylapatite nanorods Bone tissue
engineering
Alginate, gelatin and
heparin composition
Skeletal
muscle tissue
Toxic-free and environmentally
friendly
solvents were used
toxic chemicals
Less
are used
the synthesis method
in
Keskin
et al.
Moeini
et al. (2017)
Cheap to manufacture Yi et
(2017)
(2017)
al.
engineering
Poly(l-lactic acid)/
polyaniline
Cardiac
tissue
Toxic-free and environmentally
friendly
solvents were used
Wang et
(2017b)
al.
engineering
Hydroxyethyl cellulose /
silver nanoparticles
Polycaprolactone (PCL)functionalized gelatin
nanofiber
Gold nanoparticle-coated
Cholecyst-derived
extracellular matrix.
tissue
Skin
engineering
Vascular
tissue
engineering
Skeletal
muscle
tissue
engineering
Toxic-free and environmentally
friendly solvents
were used
Showed excellent
biodegradability
and
biocompatibility
Toxic-free and environmentally
friendly solvents were used
Zulkifli
et al. (2017)
Coimbra
2017)
et al. (
Nair et al.
(2017)