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Файл:Ординатура / Хирургия / Библиотека им академика М.И. Перельмана / Книга_5390_Библиотеки_им_академика_М_И_Перельмана.pdf
xii Contents
9 Green Catalysts in the Synthesis of Biomaterials
for Biomedical Applications ...... ........ ....... ........ . 217
Murugiah Krishani, Nonni Soraya Sambudi, and Hazwani Suhaimi
10 Utilisation of Plant Extracts for Green Synthesis of Metallic
Nanoparticles . ..... .... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... . 253
S. Giridhar Reddy
11 Green and Sustainable Synthesis of Silver Nanoparticles
Using Wastes of Crude Drugs for Traditional Medicinal
Use in Nara, Japan . .. ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... 275
Kimihiro Tani, Suguru Sakamoto, Yukie Tatsumoto, Masanao Imai,
and Kazumitsu Naoe
12 Metal Framework in Biosensor ..... ...... ...... ...... ..... 295
Stephen Rathinaraj Benjamin, Eli José Miranda Ribeiro Júnior,
Rosa Fireman Dutra, Sathvik Belagodu Sridhar,
Geanne Matos de Andrade, and Francisco Nivaldo Aguiar Freire
13 Cellulose, Chitin, and Chitosan Composite-Based Sustainable
Biomaterials ... .. .. .. .. .. ... .. .. .. .. .. .. ... .. .. .. .. .. . 317
Sultan Gul, Yesim Karahan, Ozan Baris Kurtur,
and Yasemin Budama-Kilinc
14 Sustainable Synthesis of Cellulose-Derived Hydrogels
for Tissue Engineering . ... .. .. ... .. .. ... .. .. ... .. .. ... .. 343
Ainil Hawa Jasni, Azlin Suhaida Azmi, Noor Illi Puad Mohamad
Puad, Fathilah Ali, and Yusilawati Ahmad Nor
15 Hydroxyapatite-Starch-Based Sustainable Biomaterials . ... .. .. . 373
Christian Chapa
16 Surfactant-Free Synthesis of Metal and Metal Oxide
Nanomaterials: Sustainable and Eco-Synthesis Methods .... ..... 399
Sayali C
huri, U
shasi Das, Popat Mohite, Sanchita Mandal,
and Sudarshan Singh
Index . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
Sustainable Green Biomaterials in Drug Delivery
Ruby Srivastava
Abstract
The recent breakthrough of biomaterials in drug delivery has created a new
beginning of personalised medicare with smart “sustainable green” biomaterials.
These biomaterials are versatile, adaptable and have enriched therapeutic
outcomes with reduced side effects. Recent advancements in nanomaterials and
gene therapeutics have enhanced the precision drug discovery. As biomaterials
can be tuned according to the individual genomic profiles and disease
characteristics, they are used for optimum benefits and minimum side effects.
Biodegradable polymers have adaptable features, managable degenerative rates,
customized mechanics, and surface properties that coordinate well with the
human body. Yet biomaterials have not enough potential to change healthcare
sector, as the treatment is customized to the individual patient’s needs. Novel
biomaterials led to the discovery of absorbable stents, used to replace the perma-
nent metallic stents in cardiology. Metamaterials also play a vital role due to their
exceptionally designed properties. They are used for medical applications as they
have excellent potential to exploit sound and electromagnetic energy. These
metamaterials are used in radiology, optical and masking devices. Metamaterials
are used to improve diagnostics for better resolution and susceptibility. In this
chapter we will discuss various types of sustainable biomaterials, their significant
role in drug delivery, advantages and their applications in oncology, dentistry,
cardiovascular diseases and neurological diseases. The challenges are also
highlighted which include the toxicity issues and the complexity of
manufacturing processes.
1
R. Srivastava (✉)
Bioinformatics, CSIR-CCMB, Hyderabad, India
#
Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2025
The
R. Malviya, S. Sundram (eds.), Sustainable Green Biomaterials As Drug Delivery
Systems, Biomaterials, Bioengineering and Sustainability 1,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-79062-1_1
1
2 R. Srivastava
Keywords
Biomaterials · Sustainable · Drug delivery · Cardiovascular diseases · Side effects
Abbreviations
E. coli Escherichia coli
DOX Doxorubicin
B-Mori Bombyx mori
HER2 Human Epidermal growth factor Receptor 2
In Situ In the normal location
PVC polyvinyl chloride
PEHD polyethylene high density
PTFE polytetrafluroethylene
PMMA polymethylmethacrylate
UHMWPE Ultra-High Molecular Weight Polyethylene
PLA Polylactic acid
NFC nanofibrillated cellulose
BNC bacterial nanocellulose
CNC cellu
ELRs elastin-like recombinamers
RLPs Recombinant resilin-like peptides
ECM extracellular matrix
FDA Food and Drug Administration
Cel/Ch/Chs Cellulose, Chitosan, and Chitin
GO Graphene Oxide
LCA Life Cyc le Management
in vivo within the living
in vitro within the glass
lose nanocry
stals
1.1 Introduction
Biomaterials are natural or artificial substances, which interact with an organ, tissue
or any other system for the diagnostic and treatment purposes. Biomaterials are used
to replace the damaged tissue, send and receive signals from the surro unding cells
and adjust the behaviour of immune cell (Colombani et al. 2021a, b), or the
functioning of biological materials (Rodrigo-Navarro et al. 2021; Whitaker et al.
2021). Green materials have started a new need based era that is used to reform the
system and serve the society at a larger scale. The optimization of green materials is
used to utilize the systems that relate to the environment and physiology in a better
way. The development of green sustainable biomaterials have increased due to the
global importance as these green sustainable materials have less harmful effect to the
1 Sustainable Green Biomaterials in Drug Delivery 3
environment. These biomaterials are developed with natural and renewable
resources. Green sustainable materials are produce d with sensible properties and it
covers the whole cycle from production to disposal with reduced environmental
hazards. These materials are extracted from the manufacturing plants and used for
diagnostic and therapeutic and then as a medical waste. During this proces s, these
materials are receptive to the impurity and successive degradati
(thermal,
hydro-mechanical, or biochemical) processes in air, clay and water. It plays
on through different
a major role for the biological safety. The complexities arise due to the fusion of
similar or different type of biomaterials. Biomaterials affect the surface chemistry,
structural strength and porosity and other factors which effect the repurposing of
biomaterials. These green materials emphasize on the accurate configuration of
concepts which are used to co
dim
new
ension. Green sustainable biomaterials are based on ten fundamental
ordinate t
he sustainable green biomaterials with a
principles which are as follows: avoid the toxic wastes, applications for recycling
reactions, use of safe and green solvents, use of sustainable and safe feedstocks, use
of biomimic protocols and approaches, use of green sustainable reagents, reducing
the carbon emission, sustaining the life cycle, conser vation of resources and produc-
ion of efficient
t
products. These principles are used to design the applications
oriented materials with non-toxic, biodegradable, biocompatible, multifunctional
and recyclable materials. The real-time and in situ analysis should be carried out
to avoid the toxic reactions and to design sustainable materials with ease and fast
clearance from functional systems. The assessment of the sustainable biomaterials
needs to be assessed from production to disposal and to m
durability
regulate the macrophage polarization (Mao et al.
2019; Se
of green sustainable biomaterials. The advanced biomaterials are used to
2022), drug delivery (Khan et al.
rvatan et al.
2020), and regenerative therapies (Chen et al. 2020; Rana et al.
aintain and improve the
2023) See Fig. 1.1. Other biomaterials for stimuli-responsive systems are also
Fig. 1.1 Composition of biomaterials used for sustainable recycling. (Reference Wiśniewska P,
et al. Front. Biomater. Sci. 2023, 2, 1260402)
4 R. Srivastava
designed for biological applications (Rogers et al. 2020; Yazdi et al. 2022). There are
advanced approaches to shape and regulate the viability of cells of these biomaterials
(Brokesh and Gaharwar
to develop function-shaped implants (Jafari et al. 2022) from titanium and its alloys,
based on patients need.
These biomaterials are considered as an interdisciplinary work of materials
science, biology, chemistry, engineering, and fabrication process. For example: Ti,
stainless steel, polyvinyl chloride (PVC), polystyrene, polyurethane, polyethyl ene,
polyesters, Si, Al₂O₃. The life cycle of material includes sensible and substantial
properties, with ecological effect on production, refining, degradation, reusing, or
final discard after its utility (Lefèvre and Auger 2016; Biswal et al. 2020; Zhu et al.
2016). Based on the properties these biomaterials are classified as materials pro-
duced from sustainable sources, environment friendly manuf acturing, safety,
repurposing after proper utilization. The other salient features should be economic
attainability and usefulness for the society. The environmental impact of a sustainable biomaterial should be considered and justified for the societal needs (Kalirajan
et al. 2021).
2020; Chua et al. 2021; Fu et al. 2022). 3D printing is used
1.2 Classification
Biomaterials are composed of ceramics, polymers, glass, metals, and composites.
These biomaterials are classified based on their function, compatibility, response and
acceptability. If we look from the chemical point of view, these biomaterials are
identified by composition, structure, backbone, and surface chemistry (Kargozar
et al. 2019). Bioceramics are inert, bioresorbable, or bioactive materials.
Bioceramics has wider applications in non-adherent fibrous tissue, resorbed and
included into the local tissue and forming bond between the implant and the tissues
(Punj et al. 2021). Biometals are biocompatible and have load-bearing capacity. Few
biometals are biodegradable (Saini et al. 2015), and few other biometals have
corrosive nature. The reaction mechanism (anode, cathode) of biomaterials can
control the corrosion rate of implants (Eliaz 2019 ). The flexibility of polymers for
molecular design can provide a larger application for tissue engineering,
nanoplatforms, engrafts, stents, catheters, bone setting support, and prosthesis
(Kalirajan et al. 2021; Rabiee et al. 2022; Rezaeeyazdi et al. 2022). These polymeric
biomaterials are biodegradable, hydrophilic, surface chemistry, and erosion
mechanisms. The modification in the properties of biomaterials can be significantly
carried out with nanoparticles or supplementary biodegradable polymers (Saeedi
et al. 2022; Seidi et al. 2021). Recently 3D and 4D polymeric biomaterials are used
due to reduced cost and flexibility in design for biomedical applications (Pugliese
et al. 2021; Shokrani et al. 2022). After serving the purpose, these biomaterials are
replaced or withdrawn. The applications of biomaterials are wide, but the generated
medical waste has become a huge problem.
Right now
Since these biomaterials are infectious waste, discarding them can produce the
these biomaterials are either dumped or combust (Joseph et al. 2021).
1 Sustainable Green Biomaterials in Drug Delivery 5
environmental hazards and pollution (soil, water). Also the other disposal method is
the inadequate incineration which if not properly done can lead to the release of
harmful chemicals in the surroundings (Joseph et al.
biomaterials have improved the quality of life and time span for humans. These
biomaterials are hydrogels, natural polymers (Arif et al. 2022a, 2023; Khalid and
Arif 2022) and the synthetically manufactured materials. These biomaterials are used
to replace the parts of the body such as: Heart valve, shoulder, knee, elbow and hip
joints, ears, orthodental system, and implants (Pesode and Barve
2020). These biomaterials are
classified as follows:
2021). The wide applications of
2021a; Barbin et al.
1.2.1 Metallic Biomaterials
Metallic biomaterials are used mainly for medical applications. These materials are
corrosion resistance and have good mechanical features. Such as CrCo amalgam,
stainless steel, coinage metal alloys, Ti alloys, Mg and related alloys, and NiTi
(Pesode and Barve 2021b, 2022). The titanium implants are used for its bony
combination with the jaw bones.
1.2.2 Polymeric Biomaterials
Polymeric biomaterials are used for biomedicine applications. These polymeric
biomaterials are chemically stable, biocompatible, environmental friendly, viable
and biodegradable (Rana et al.
(PEHD), polytetrafuroethylene (PTFE), polymethylmethacrylate (PMM A). These
biomaterials are affordable, biocompatible and easily available. Other polymer
biomaterials include acrylic, polyamide, polyester, polyethylenes, polysiloxanes,
and polyurethanes. These polymers are used for the pacemakers, Arthroplasty,
artificial skin, sutures, skin and maxillofacial implants, synthetic blood vessels.
These biomaterials are widely used for pancreas, artificial hearts, livers, kidneys,
and bladders (Burg et al. 2000; Tariq et al. 1970; Arif et al. 2022b) related artificial
devices.
2023). For example: polyethylene high-density
1.2.3 Ceramic Biomaterials
Ceramic biomaterials include HAp ceramic particles into a biocompatible HDPE as a
replacement for bone. The ceramic biomaterials include graphite, calcium phosphate, apatites, a luminium oxide and glass which is used for medicinal purposes
(Pesode and Barve 2021b; Burg et al. 2000). Ceramics are nontoxic, inert and create
variety of shapes for the body. These include bone grafting, artificial heart valves,
hip prostheses, knees replacement, prosthesis and dental products. Since the
ceramics have inferior mechanical properties, it is advisable to use ceramics carefully for load-bearing and stress related applications. Ceramics should be used
6 R. Srivastava
carefully and safely for implant devices that bear large tensile stresses (Arif et al.
2022b).
1.2.4 Composite Biomaterials
Composite biomaterials are widely used for designing artificial parts of the body and
dental products. Carbon fibres are used to strengthen polyethylene (UHMWPE)
matrix of high molecular weight. Fabricated from pyrolyzing acrylic fibres, these
structures are created with high young modulus and great durability. These carbon
fibres have 6–15 nm of diameter and they are randomly aligned in the matrix. The
core properties of these composite biomaterials are tuned for applications in intra
medullary rods and artificial joints (Pesode and Barve
2022; Burg et al. 2000). It is
possible to change the flexibility of the materials design. These biomaterials are
unique and stronger than any other homogeneous substances. They are used for
tissue in-growth as per the requirements. For example: Al
carbon and PTFE, Al
and PLA coated with carbon fibres (Burg et al. 2000; Takur
2O3
deposit on carbon,
2O3
et al. 2022).
1.2.5 Nanocellulose
Nanocellulose is novel biomaterials with unique characteristics and bio
sustainability. Cellulose, the natural polymers are found in plant cell walls, is
purified to the nanoscale. Cellulose is taken out as cellulose nanofibers or
nanocrystals. These novel and artificially created biomaterials from natural polymers
and biocellulose are used for clinical applications (Lin and Dufresne
2021). Nanocellulose made from natural cellulose fibres has a diameter
et al.
(100 nm approximately) and a length (in micrometres).
Nanocellulose can be classified as:
2014; Mehanny
(a) nano fibrillated cellulose (NFC),
(b) bacterial nanocellulose (BNC), and
(c) cellulose nanocrystals (CNC).
Nanoc
ellulose h
as high elasticity (110–220 GPa), hardness (7.5–7.7 GPa), large
specific surface area, personalized surface funct ionality, adjustable crystallinity,
excellent chemical resistance and polymerizability (Fagone et al. 2017). Because
of the multifacet properties of these sustainable nanocelluloses, these biomaterials
are used for various interdisciplinary applications (Kumar et al. 2019). As the
precision in dimensions of nanocellulose is important, it is essential to understand
the dimensions of nanocellulose retrieve by different plants (Khalid et al. 2021)
Let’s discu
ss the applications of different types of sustainable biomaterials in next
.
section.
1 Sustainable Green Biomaterials in Drug Delivery 7
1.3 Different Types of Green Biomaterials for Biomedical
Applications
1.3.1 Biocompatible Proteins
Proteins are produced by plants and animals (Stie et al. 2022; Liang et al. 2006),
which are abundant, biodegradable and used to made the environmental supportive
products (Grigsby et al.
in large quantities. Proteins rely on renewable source s and they have low greenhouse
gas emissions (Eshel et al. 2019). Plants derived proteins are not related to animal
transmitted diseases and become an alternative source for animal derived proteins
(Jones et al. 2013). Animal proteins are mostly expensive compared to the plant
proteins. These proteins can serve for osseous tissue engineering and osteoinductive
biocomposite scaffolds (Râpă et al. 2020; Arslan et al. 2017). The collagen from
marine wastes is used as a substitution for natural collagen (Barros et al. 2015). We
get proteins from human hair and biological throwaway for the domestic fowls
(Eshel et al. 2019; He et al. 2017). Protein-based biomaterials have varied
applications provided that these protein sources should have low energy and
environmentally sustainable (Zuin and Ramin 2018). Proteins from livestock excrement or food feeder provide a sustainable, low cost, and dependable feedstock
(Sozer et al. 2017). Several fibrous proteins, such as keratin, silk, resilin, and elastin
are also used as green biomaterials (Costa et al. 2017). Collagen, gelatin, keratin, and
silk are used for various eco-friendly purposes and numerous applications, such as
freeform fabrication, micro and tissue engineering. See Table 1.1.
Protein-based biomaterials are plenty and renewable (Bonduelle 2018; DeFrates
et al. 2018), easily modified and have chemical heterogeneity. These features of
2020). Proteins are sustainable source of polymers produced
Table 1.1 Biomaterials developed from traditional and alternative protein sources
Protein Traditional source Alternative source
Keratin Wool fibres, horns, nails and feathers
Collagen Collagen type I: Mammalian skin, and
Silk Domestic silkworms: Bombyx mori
Elastin
and
resilin
Reference Agnieray
from butchery
tendon tissues (porcine, bovine and
ovine in origin); collagen type II:
bovine, porcine and chicken
cartilaginous tissues; marine collagen
(B. mori); wild silkworms: Antheraea
pernyi and Samia cynthia ricini;
Spiders: Nephila clavipes and Araneus
diadematus.
Animal-derived tropoelastin,
recombinant production.
et al. Biochemical Society Transactions (2021) 49953–964
Biomimetic recombinant hagfish thread
keratin, recombinant human hair keratins
K31 and K81
Recombinant human collagen in
different prokaryotic, eukaryotic, plant
and mammalian expression systems
Recombinant silk proteins in different
host systems
Recombinant elastin-like recombinamers
(ELRs); recombinant resilin-like peptides
(RLPs) proteins
8 R. Srivastava
protein biomaterials are due to the variable amino acid composition which a protein
opt from various resources (Shadish and DeForest
2020; Wang et al. 2019). As the
proteins are water-soluble, the production is limited for organic solvents (Capezza
et al. 2019). Protein biomaterials have excellent physical properties, and they are
intrinsically biodegradable (Abascal and Regan 2018). So it is necessary to develop
novel protein-based materials and sourcing proteins in various manners (Costa et al.
2017; B
onduelle 2018;
DeFrates et al. 2018; Shadish and DeForest 2020). 3D
printing, a sustainable manufacturing allows the flexible designs and print of complex structures. 3D printing associate biopolymers such as proteins, polysaccharides
and other green materials for novel biomaterial inks (DeFrates et al. 2018). The
physicochemical and biological properties of proteins are tuned to design novel
biomaterials for tissue engineering. For examp le: structural scaffolds for medical
devices, tissue mimics and biosensors. Bioengineered silk are used for wider
applications. Silk spidroin proteins are associated to the H2.1 or DOX peptide
(Shamshina et al.
(HER2), responsible for breast cancer. DOX shows affinity for doxorubicin, a
2
2019), which binds to Human Epidermal growth factor Receptor
cancer drug. Composite silk spidroin spheres offer controlled, low cost and targeted
drug delivery system (Shamshina et al. 2019) which is effective for the patients.
Sustainable bioengineered silk is designed for prokaryotic and eukaryotic models
which included E. coli, rice, tobacco, and kidney cells (Galanakis 2015
).
The improvement of insulin delivery in patients become effective by inserting
subcutaneous silk fibroin hydrogels injections encapsulated with insulin for the
control of blood glucose in the studies of diabetic rats (Shamshina et al. 2018).
Silk fibroin microneedle patches are used for drug delivery to preserve tissue
integrity (Miculescu et al. 2017a). Collagen biomaterials are used to deliver drug
with natural biocompatibility and ECM protein (Fagone et al.
2017).
Sponge
scaffolds and other materials are produced by the extracted collagen from fowl
industry. Gelatin, which is produced by partial hydrolysis of collagen, is used for
drug delivery (Fagone et al.
2017). Hydrogels are used in the form of injections to
transport anti-inflammatory drugs for osteoarthrosis patients (Dorozhkin 2011).
Gelatin/salecan along with an antibiotics (vancomycin) is given in intravenous
2017).
form to deliver drugs (Bouler et al.
Delivery vehicles made with sustainable
protein-based scaffolds such as keratin form rigid, yet porous, scaffold which can be
used for osseous matrix applications.Wool keratin scaff olds showed good physicochemical properties and can be produced by liquid casting (Abutalib and Yahia
2017) and electrohydrodynamic processes (Miculescu et al. 2017b). The biocompat-
ibility of kerat in scaffolds does not obtain intrinsic or antibody mediated safe
responses in standard large animal model, which is important for implantation
(Takur et al.
2017).
Elastin, an ECM protein sourced from the ligaments of animal
neck show flexibility and durability to tissue. The incorporation of elastin crosslinking into collagen scaffolds for vascular system improve the strength and
increases survival for overall muscle cell (Takur and Voicu 2016). Hydrogels and
films created from elastin expressed in E. coli are used for improvement of vascular
tissue engineering. Elastin improves the mechanical stress of protein-based
materials, so that these biomaterials can be used in skin tissue engineering (Patel
1 Sustainable Green Biomaterials in Drug Delivery 9
et al. 2015). Resilin with high elasticity and flexibility is used to repeat mechanical
loading (Eshel et al.
2019) and bacterial cultivation (Eshel et al. 2019; Jones et al.
2013; Râpă et al. 2020). Resilin-like composite proteins are used to imitate tissue and
contribute to cell differentiation (Eshel et al. 2019; Jones et al. 2013; Râpă et al.
2020). Recombine peptides based on human type I collagen is processes by fermen-
tation of yeast (Khalid et al.
crylated gelatins imitate ECM and help enclosed stem cells (Vanapalli et al.
metha
2022). Hydrogels formed from animal-derived
2021). The bacterial fermentation is put to use with human-like collagen expressed
in bacterial host (E. coli BL21) in addition to chitosan to produce hydrogels which is
used to remove the full-thickness skin defects (Vanapalli et al. 2021). Poult ry skin
collagen composites are used to develop engineered skin substitutes. Marine
Products ‘blue biomaterials’, and elastin hydrolysate, human tropoelastin and
α-elastin are used to make or modify scaffolds such as collagen for skin substitutes.
Collagen extracted from eel (Govindharaj et al.
2019), codfi
sh (Carvalho et al.
2018), and tilapia (Li et al. 2019) skin show sustainable structures as compared to
conventional, mammalian collagens. Even with these advantages, there are
limitations and challenges in designing effective viable protein-based biomaterials
with collected variation and complications of translating them for clinical purposes.
Sustainable technologies are used for promoting greener, safer, and environmentally safe biomaterials (Tipping and Wolfe 2016). There is a need to reduce the
ecological track by 2030, by restructuring life process of raw materials and production (Khalid et al. 2023; Keshipour and Hadidi 2023). Protein biomaterials in green
chemistry use decomposable materials, minimum waste generation, and minimal use
of insufficient raw substances. Animal sourced proteins biomaterials show more
mechanical strength than proteins from plants resources (Fiorentini et al.
Another
type of composite biomaterials is made from animal and plant proteins,
2021).
(Karri et al. 2016; Samadian et al. 2020), polycarbohydrates or other proteins mixed
with biopolymers (natural/synthetic) (Alam and Shubhra 2015; Yao et al. 2017;
Khabbaz et al. 2019) with a selection of right solvent (Al Kayal et al. 2020; Chong
et al. 2019). Proteins are biocompatible due to its intrinsic source; and they are used
for clinical applications. Proteolytic enzymes degrade proteins, and the rate of
breakdown can affect the functioning of protein biomaterials in vivo. Proteases
have diverse affinity for particular recognition motifs which depend on primary
amino acid sequence, made some proteins unsafe to proteolytic degeneration by
certain peptidase (Shamshina et al.
The secondary and tertiary structures of
2018).
some proteins are less manageble to proteolytic cleavage. A protein is resisted for
being break down by certain proteases if it is no able to recognize the motifs. So the
behaviour of materials and degradation process of protein is determined by the type
of protein (Müller-Herrmann and Scheibel 2015). Since there is crosslinking of the
constituents of proteins in biomaterials, it is possible to increase the responsiveness
of proteolytic disintegration and tune the behaviour of proteins (Müller-Herrmann
and Scheibel
proteins is modified by exposing these proteins to solvents (CH
5). The ossification and modification of the secondary structure of
201
OH, HCOOH)
3
during the manufacturing of a biomaterial. The sensitivity of protein-based materials
is also reduced due to degradation (Müller-Herrmann and Scheibel 2015). It is easy