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Файл:Ординатура / Хирургия / Библиотека им академика М.И. Перельмана / Книга_5390_Библиотеки_им_академика_М_И_Перельмана.pdf
10 R. Srivastava
to predict the properties of novel protein-based materials in vivo by evaluating
degeneracy. Biodegradable proteins can be used as substitution to synthetic
polymers due to ecological green biodegradation (Maeda et al.
2001). Peptides
and proteins are approved safe for the ecosystem. Protein-based delivery devices
are FDA approved and these devices are used for drug delivery and treatment.
Neurontin brand gebapentin capsules are used for neurological disorders (Shamshina
et al.
2018)
. By modi fication
of
the structures, robust and flexible plant protein
biomaterials are used for coatings, films, microcapsules, and personal care products.
GelaCellTM using gelatin and corn-based zein is used to fabricate 3D nanoscaffolds
for the treatment of injury and tissue engineering.
1.3.2 Composites (Cellulose, Chitosan, and Chitin)
The biocomposites made of Cel/Ch/Chs possess sustainable biological activity and
used for biomedical applications. Cellulose, Chitin, and Chitosan Composite have
antibacterial activity against many bacteria and fungi (Madni et al.
modification of Cel/Ch/Chs enhanced the biological interactions, whereas protonation of chitosan increases its solubility. Adding substituents, the microbial activity
of chitin and chitosan is decreased (Ma et al.
2008).
The high content of chitosan
causes sufficient reduction in weight (leaching). As cellulose has high pH, cellulose
does not protonate for the application of pH range (3–8) (Ya ng et al.
same explanation can be applied to the modified anionic and cationic chitin/chitosan
and cellulose derivatives. Natural polymers include polysaccharides like Cel/Ch/,
and it’s partly diacetylated derivatives. Chitosan (Bassas -Galia et al. 2017
functional groups (-NH
and –OH) have high biosustainability and
2
cytocompatibility. These biomaterials are nontoxic, and biodegradable. Due to the
Chitin and cellulose inter-relations, these biomaterials give structural stability and
protection to plants and some animals. Synthetic polymers have low cost and
compositional consistency, but the low reconcilability and toxicity of their
disintegrated product limits its uses. So it is of major concern to look into the
environmental friendly production and disposal as well as biocompatible production.
Such as: personal protective equipment made of fossil fuels (Liu et al.
composites of various polymers can be created with customized properties. Also
advanced techniques are used to fabri cate high quality tissue engineering fibres and
materials. For instance, pure chitosan is not used for the industrial purpose due to its
poor mechanical properties; but cellulose can be used to enhance its activities. These
composites are made from mixing of biopolymers. These biomaterials are multifunctional and biodegradable and used for tissue engineering (Kucharczyk et al.
2020). Cellulose and cellulose acetate are used in food and beverage industries for
ultra and nanofiltration (Whittall et al. 2020). The Cel/Ch and Cel/Chs
biocomposites are extracted into desired “shapes”. The one-pot method solution
blending is used to reduce the complexity of process and expenditure (Maity et al.
2020). The heterogeneous synthesis of Cel/Ch and Cel/Chs composites in various
combinations are used for biomedical applications.
2021). Chemical
2019). The
with
)
2019). New
1 Sustainable Green Biomaterials in Drug Delivery 11
1.3.3 Hydroxyapatite-Starch Based Biomaterials
These sustainable biomaterials are used for bone replacement therapies. There is
great demand of using artificial materials for substituting the bone tissues. These
synthetic materials are used in large collections, unlike the traditional transplant
methods which are used in practise. These biomaterials are used for artificial
implants and other biomedical applications. With proper usage, the risk of biological
infection and immunologic inconsistency is reduced (Zhu et al.
2018). These biomaterials mimic the natural osseous tissue with composites which
includes an organic matrix with a ceramic component. Since these biomaterials are
used for bone implantation so it is vital to use functionalised and recycl ed
biomaterials to nurture the regrowth of host tissue and made it easier for newly
generated bone tissue to replace the implanted materials (Fan et al. 2020). The
biceramics made of calcium phosphates have good osteoconductive proper ties,
which made them suitable candidates for bone regeneration provided that vascularization supported porosity is provided (Bloise et al.
2020).
brittle and molding it to a complex geometry is difficult, yet it is useful for bone
interaction. Mixing with natural polymers, these composite materials are used for
tissue engineering (Naderi et al.
may increase the protein-based ceramics (Dias et al.
2020). Natural polymers are both reconcilable and
2020; Ghazanfari et al. 2019).
Various other biomaterials such as hydroxyapatite and starch mixtures are used for
medical applications. Plant and animal based polymers are abundant in nature. Some
of these biomaterials are biocompatible, and some are even biodegradable. These
biomaterials use fast, simple and low cost processes to produce sustainable
properties (Khalili et al. 2019).
3D cell-laden nanohydroxyapatite/protein hydrogels
are used for bone regeneracy (Sadat-Shojai et al. 2015 ). The 3D cell-filled
HAp/hydrogel nanocomposites integrated with gelatin hydrogel provide strength
and bioactivity, as these biocomposites are active and osteoconductivive (Hing et al.
2004). These biomaterials absorb proteins (vitronectin and fibronectin), so that its
bioactive capabilities are improved (Lee et al. 2006; Dorozhkin
limitations of using hydroxyapatite are that these are fragile and have low tensile
strength, which cause poor mechanical properties. Hydroxyapatite also increased
post implantation infection risks. Starch is also used in clinical applications as starch
is low cost material, renewable, decomposable in multienvironments without
generating harmful substances. Starch can thicken easily, swell, and gel, which is
used to change the properties in water at high temperatures (Wong and Louie
Amylos
e and amylopectin are found in starch. Amylopectin is responsible for the
transparency of the materials. Starch grains are also useful for wider applications and
it is present in plants (wheat, rice, and potatoes) (Gregorova et al. 2009). The
properties of starch depend on which source they are derived (Salgado et al.
2004). The composite materials (polymeric films and starches) increase the tensile
strength, fracture toughness, and abrasion resistance with increased amylose
concentrations. Starch is used for many applications, but still it has some restrictions
as poor mechanical properties, water sensitivity and processing. Though these
restrictions is removed by modifying the appropriate additions and chemical
2020;
Kuo et al.
Calcium phosphates is
2010).
The
2017).
12 R. Srivastava
changes, so that the biomaterials can become stable. The properties are also tuned by
using the appropriate blending of starch, phyllosilicates, clays, and other
polysaccharides for useful applications.
1.3.4 Carbonaceous Materials
Carbonaceous materials are abundant in nature. Biomaterials made from renewable
carbon materials are used for various applications (Ma et al.
carboneous materials are made from eutectic solvents, graphitic nanostruct ures and
cellulose fibres and carbon nanotubes. For example: cellulosic fibres, agricultural
biomass (such as pomelo skins and maize stalks). The experimental results showed
that pyrolysis-based synthesis of cellulose carbon fibres contained branched carbon
nanotubes. Carbonaceous materials are used in catalysis, energy generation, production of polyester, photo and electrochemical applications. The surface area of carbon
fibres are increased by adding the metal containing salt solution (Zhao et al.
The composite multiwalled carbon nanotubes with heavy metal ions are used to
manage the nuclear waste (Wang et al. 2005). GO nanosheets and its sulphonated
derivatives worked as biosorbents (Zhao et al. 2011a, b) to separate Cd (II) or Co
(II) ions, naphthalene, and 1-naphthol, respectively. Carbonaceous gels processed
via hydrothermal treatment are a cheap and environmentally safe biomaterial. As
aerogels have poor mechanical and/or thermal stability, 3D carbonaceous flexible
hydrogel and aerogel is developed. The entire substance include carbon source
(crude biomass) and the network inserted by Fe
nanoparticles, (Wu et al. 2013)
3O4
so that it can be used for electrochemical applications due to enhanced mechanical
properties and strong chemical activity. These properties are used for catalytic
supports, adsorbents, materials, and biomedical applications. These biomaterials
are chemically inactive, have specified surface area, sizeable volumes, and high
mechanical strength. Carbon compounds made from waste biomass is the harmful
dye constituent malachite green, which when released causes hazards for aquatic
life. Recent researches showed that sulphuric acid-stimulated carbon produce waste
biomass palm flowers to absorb malachite green (Nethaji et al. 2010).
are also used to create sponge-like functional carbons with magnificent properties to
remove the methylene blue (Liu et al. 2014a). Also, nitrogen-doped porous carbon
nanosheets are used to enhance energy storage (Liu et al. 2014b). By adding doped
materials, the electrical and electrochemical properties are tuned for varied
applications (Wang et al. 2014; Asghari and Keshipour 2023; Keshipour and
Asghari 2022; Keshipour and Eyvari-Ashnak 2023; Gao et al. 2014). Nitrogendoped carbon composites showed good electrocatalytic activities due to high porosity and large surface areas. Despite the usefulness of carbon materials at certain level,
their industrial applications are hindered due to low cost, environment, time, and
complex routes. The disadvantages of these materials are excess energy requirement,
solvent revival, tools decomposition, and toxicity. The environmentally safe
techniques can use the wastes as a source for creating novel biomaterials. Soot,
xylan, biofuel, polysaccharides, and turf are used for these purposes (Kumar Gupta
et al.
2015).
2014
).
These
2013).
Banana peels
1 Sustainable Green Biomaterials in Drug Delivery 13
1.4 Perspective
In recent years, the design, production, and industrial use of biomaterials have
captured the industry. Further, demand for 3Rs (repair, replacement, recycling) of
biomaterials is also increased. These biomaterials are not fully degradable in case of
oral implantation or within the body. It addresses great concern regarding the
sustainability and circularity. The Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) reported ecological
effects and carbon footmark outcomes of biomaterials (Hjuler and Hansen
2018;
Soman and Ajitha 2018). Now these recycling and environmental safety has become
a major concern. See Fig. 1.2.
1.4.1 Current Recycling Strategies
The green biomaterials show specific and relevant purpose in vivo and/or in vitro.
Biomaterials are continuously been used in regenerative medicine and vario us
medical devices. Once their applications are served, they are replaced or withdrawn.
As biomaterials have prominent role in medicine, their collection and management
in medical waste is major concern. These biowastes are often landfilled or
incinerated. Since they are infectious waste, they are very harmful for the environmental. The waste degradation causes oil and water pollution. Also, inadeq uate
incineration release toxic chemical compounds into the environment, which need
to be addressed urgently.
Fig. 1.2 Various strategies with actions taken for biomaterials recycling. (Reference
Wiśniewska P, et al. Front. Biomater. Sci. 2023, 2, 1260402)
14 R. Srivastava
1.4.2 Dental and Orthopedic Implants
Since biomaterials are used in dental and orthopedics, proper recycling of metal
amalgam used in dental fixing and silver composites is needed (Thopegowda et al.
2013). Studies showed (Yadav et al. 2020 ) many efficient ways to recycle dental and
orthopedic implants. It is proposed that polymeric implants can be recycled by
extrusion, while metallurgical powder or liquid resin recycling can be used for
metallic and ceramic-based implants. The recycled products can be used to manufacture the other subsequent implants and biomaterials. It is vital to see the importance of the biomaterials and to decide whether to reuse or remanufacture or recycle
it. Clinical research showed that thrice recasting of Pd-Cu-Ga and Au-Pt metal
ceramic dental alloys showed no significant difference in its interconnected
structures. Though in some cases these structures showed different morphologies.
Such as recasting of some metallic alloys change the corrosiveness and cytotoxic
properties of these alloys. The recycled Ni-Cr dental casting alloys caused
genotoxicity when it is recycl ed for larger materials. It is also complicated to recycle
mixed polymeric biomaterials during production and processing (Tripuraneni and
Namburi 2008).
1.4.3 Medical Plastic Waste
Mechanical and chemical methods are adopted for secondary and tertiary recycling
of polymeric medical waste biomaterials (Kheirabadi and Sheikhi
tion is necessary step for the waste biomaterials before including it with plastic
wastes. The recycled polymer biomaterials have weak connected adherence and
strength. Though advanced techniques and machi ne learning (ML) tools are used to
overcome these challenges, many other possible strategies are also identified to
recycle these biomaterials (Kheirabadi and Sheikhi
2022).
2022). Steriliza-
1.4.4 Sterilization and Reusability
It is necessary to reuse the biomaterials after proper treatment and sterilization. There
are successful reports on this strategy which showed that the material properties of
the biomaterials can be maintained (Yadav et al. 2020; Kheirabadi and Sheikhi
without compromise. The mechanical strength of unutilized, inserted,
2022
)
removed smaller implants from pig iliac bone with and without supplementary
treatment showed that the distortion of screws was not changed. But in some other
reports, the sterilization affects the final behavior of the biomaterial. Such as the
orthodontic archwires composed of Ni-Ti and Cu-Ni-Ti alloys, which experience
deterioration and surface irregularities after two cycles of uses. In other studies the
stainless steel orthodontic brackets receive reduction in shear bond strength by
flaming with ultrasonic cleaning (Sayed et al.
abrasive blasting showed adequate strength for its use for clinical applications.
2018).
The flame treatment with
1 Sustainable Green Biomaterials in Drug Delivery 15
Now it is the demand of time to discover novel, environmentally friendly disinfection technologies to reuse biomaterials without deteriorating their properties (Attrah
et al.
2022).
1.4.5 Waste Management for Recycling
Though the above mentioned process is used for the waste management, it needs
major changes in the collection of waste biocompatible materials. The health sector
requires trained staff with awareness of recycling and disposal of the wastecollection used in the hospitals. These biomaterials need to be separated and
categorised, and if possible it should be recycle after sterilization. These biomaterials
need not to be an environmental burden; rather they are decomposed or dissolve
inside the body after a preset time (Thopegowda et al.
2022; Attrah et al. 2022). The biomaterials have low tensile strength which limits the
use to these biomaterials in bone transplant applications (Yadav et al. 2020).
2013; Kheirabadi and Sheikhi
1.5 Conclusion and Future Challenges
There are remarkable researches in the field of biomaterials, which are focussing on
recycling or disposal of toxic chemical industry products to sustain environmental
safety (Rodrigo-Navarro et al.
associated with various harmful chemical products overshadow its benefits for
biomedical and clinical applications, developing vigorous measures, categorize,
and processing methods that bond to the rigid standard control is vital. The contamination and degradation are the responsible factors for the biological safety. Additionally, including biomaterials into other materials can affect surface chemistry,
strength and chemical properties of the biomaterials. This effect the reusability and
recyclability of the biomaterials. These biomaterials are used for various therapeutic
applications. 4D printing has great influence on the biomedical industry. New
sustainable materials are fabricated, and high-resolution, economical printers are
also made. 5D printing is also used for products with twisted surfaced support
system that will improve the speed and strength by proper adjustments. These
methods are used to decrease waste materials, reduce transportation costs, improve
the manufacturing costs, simplifying the supply chain, and improve the
sustainability of ecosystem. These technologies are used by the variety of industries
to use the recycled and recovered materials when necessary. Numerous applications
of tissue engineering include appropriate natural and synthetic biomaterials and
biocomposites.
Solution blending is also possible, which is used to dissolve both biopolymers
simultaneously or singly in suitable solvents before refining them into the proper
“shapes.” Solution blending use one-pot approach to remarkably decrease the
complex proces sing and expenses. Hydroxyapatite and starch combinations are
used for the recent biomedical uses with extensive potential of biomaterials. There
2021; Whitaker et al. 2021). Since the biomaterials
16 R. Srivastava
are many plants and animal based biocompatible and biodegradable polymers which
improve the bioactivity of ceramics. The potential of sustainable and recycled
biomaterials transform the healthcare by combined efforts of policymakers,
scientists and industry stakeholders. We can create sustainable ecosystem by
addressing the challenges that allows the efficient reuse of biomaterials for therapeutic and diagnostic applications. Until now, few researches have
for the improvement of these biomaterials. A considerable amount
been carried out
of work with
innovative and emerging green design technologies can lead to a better reasonable
and supportable society in future.
Acknowledgements D
Prof.
to
NEIST for the support.
Shrish
Tiwari,
ST
Bioinformatics,
WOSA
project
(SR/WOS-A/CS-69/2018)
CCMB-CSIR, and Prof. G. Narahari Sastry, Director, CSIR-
scheme.
Author
is
thankful
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