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Файл:Социологические методы для устойчивого развития города. Учебное пособие для обучающихся по направлениям подготовки 07.03.01 Архитектура, 38.03.04 Госу
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the hypothesis is the assumption about the nature and causes of the problem
in question, about the nature of relations between the studied social phenomena and the possible approaches to the solution of social problems.
According to the degree of their generality hypotheses are classified as
foundation hypotheses and consequential hypotheses; from the point of view
of the objectives of the study, there are core and non-core hypotheses; in
terms of the degree of elaboration and validity, there are primary and secondary hypotheses, the latter used to replace the former, if the former are disproved by empirical evidence; in terms of the nature of the assumptions
about the content of the problem area of the study, there are descriptive and
explanatory hypotheses.
Operationalization of concepts. The bottom line is to conduct the logi-
cal structuring of the basic concepts that determine the object of research.
Operationalization of concepts involves precise explanation of the content
and structure of the initial concepts, and this is then used as the basis for the
understanding of the properties of the phenomenon under consideration. This
will subsequently help give the correct explanation to the results.
A transition to the methodology section can be made only after the description of all hypotheses and the construction of the theoretical model of
study.
Methodological section:
1) justification and description of the research tools;
2) description of the technique for the establishment of the sampled
population;
3) a logical flow-chart for the processing of information.
A specific method implies the use of certain research tools.
A tool is a set of methods which a sociologist uses to check, confirm or refute the hypothesis suggested. The tools include: a questionnaire, an interview
form, a diary of observations, a statistical table, an experimental record, etc.
Moving on to the stage of the development of tools (such as a questionnaire) is only possible when all the hypotheses have been outlined. In a fundamental research, tools are only required to test hypotheses. For applied
research, no hypotheses are required. A questionnaire is made only for the
collection of information and development of practical recommendations.
Description of the technique for the establishment
of the sampled population
Here, the type of sample and the sample size are defined. Often, the
quantity of the sample is determined by the size of the general population on
the basis of certain statistical dependencies. For example, if the population is
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one thousand people, the volume of a sample should be 286 people; for
3000 people, it is 350 people, for 5000 — 379 people, and for 100,000 people it is 398 people, with 5 % permitted error. If the general population is
more than five thousand people, and the sample set is only 25, the sampling
error will be 20 %, while if the number of interviewees is 45 people from
5000, the sampling error will be 15 %.
A logical flow-chart for the processing of information:
grouping and typology of the primary data obtained;
search for relationships between the variables.
An action plan for a research:
an action plan indicating the deadlines and the persons responsible for
the implementation;
calculation of the necessary resources.
PRACTICAL ISSUES AND SOLUTIONS
1. What sociological methods can be used for the sustainable develop-
ment of the city?
2.
What are the limitations of quantitative methods for exploring the
city and what are the reasons that make it necessary to use qualitative
methods?
3. Prepare a program of sociological research on a topic of your choice.
4.
Select the type of sociological research and methods of study appropriate for a given problem.
5.
Name the quality strategies and methods of sociological research.
6.
Name the quantitative research strategies and the methods used in
these strategies.
7.
Present the advantages and disadvantages of qualitative and quantitative strategies in the form of a table.
RECOMMENDED READING
1. Averyanov, L.Ya. The Art of Asking Questions. M. : Publishing House of the
RHIU, 1998. 188 p.
2. Baranova, L.M. The social environment in the cities with a historic centre.
Access code: http://www.ssa-rss.ru/ sketch of sociological reflections // Sociology and
Society: Global Challenges and Regional Development. 4th Regular All-Russian Sociological Congress. M., Р. 7398—7401. Access сode: files/File/congress2012/part54.pdf (date of access 31.01.2016).
162
3. Vlasenko, LV. Preparation and implementation of a student's educational so-
ciological research. Methodological guidelines / L.V. Vlasenko, E.A. Shnyrenkov.
M. : MGSU Publ, 2011. 47 p.
4. Gotlib, A.S. Introduction to sociological research: Qualitative and quantita-
tive approaches. Methodology. Research practice. Samara : Samara University Publishing House, 2002. 424 p.
5. Gotlib, A.S. Introduction to sociological research. Qualitative and quantita-
tive approaches. Research practice. 2nd ed., rev. and enl. M. : Flinta, 2005. 384 p.
6. Ivanova, Z.I. Preparation and implementation of a student's educational so-
ciological research. Learning aid / Z.I. Ivanova, D.S. Nikitina, E.A. Shnyrenkov. M. :
MGSU Publ, 2009. P. 112.
7. Ivanova, Z.I. A study manual for the course in Sociology: learning aid for
higher education establishments. M. : MGSU Publ, 2009. 133 p.
8. Ilyin, V.I. The dramatic art of qualitative field research. St. Petersburg : In-
tersocis, 2006. 256 p.
9. Kvale, S. Interviews: An Introduction to Qualitative Research Interviewing.
M., 2003. 301 p.
10. Kuchenkova, A.V. Strategies for the use of logic/combinatorial methods in
typological analysis procedures / A.V. Kuchenkova, G.G. Tatarova // Sociology 4M.
No. 36, 2013. P. 7—35.
11. Krueger, R. Focus groups. Practical Guide. Translated from English /
R. Krueger, M.E. Casey. M. : Williams Publishing house, 2003. 251 p.
12. Park, P. The City as a Social Laboratory. «Sociological Review», Volume 2,
No. 3, 2002. P. 59—61.
13. Семина, М.В. Метод интервью в социологии и маркетинге. М.,
2010. 308 с.
14. Tatarova, G.G. From the postulates of empirical sociology to the method-
ology of data analysis // Sociology: 4M. No. 11. 1999. P. 51—71.
15. Tatarova, T.G. Methodology of data analysis in sociology. M. : NOTA
BENE, 1999. 224 p.
16. Sharkov, F.I. Sociology: Theory and Methods: Study manual. M. : Examen,
2007. 478 p.
17. Sztompka, P.V. Focus on everyday life. A new direction in sociology //
SOCIS. No. 8, 2009. P. 3—13.
18. Shnyrenkov, E.A. Sociological research as a way of studying the public
opinion in respect of the reconstruction of urban areas. Integration, partnership and
innovation in construction science and education: scientific publication / Ministry of
Education and Science of the Russian Federation. FSBEI HPE Moscow State University of Civil Engineering. M., 2012. P. 667—672.
19. Yadov, V.A. Strategy of sociological research: Description, explanation, and
understanding of social reality. 3rd ed., rev. and enl. M. : Omega-L, 2012. 567 p.
163
6. SOCIOLOGICAL METHODS IN URBAN
PLANNING AND ARCHITECTURE
INTRODUCTION TO THE LECTURE
This lecture presents the methods of sociological research which can be used to
study the problems of the city, urban planning and architecture. A brief description
is provided for each method, as well as the outline of its scope and the examples of
its use.
THE GOAL AND THE KEY OUTCOMES OF THE TRAINING
The purpose of studying this subject area is to improve the Master's
course students' knowledge of the methods of sociological case study.
Key outcomes of the training: mastering the skills of organizing and
conducting sociological research on city problems and urban planning issues, the development of the tools of the research, such as questionnaires and
interview guides.
Issues discussed in the lecture:
1. A survey as the main method of sociological case study: interviewing
and questionnaires.
2. Analysis of the documents.
3. Observation: main types, requirements to the performance.
Keywords: methods of sociological research, survey, observation,
document analysis, content analysis, experiment, questionnaire, observer's
log, guid interview.
Issue 1. A survey as the main method of sociological case study:
interviewing and questionnaires
There are three main methods to collect primary empirical data: survey,
document analysis, observation. Each of these methods has its own characteristics, strengths and weaknesses. The choice of the method depends, first
of all, on the researcher's objectives and tasks, their opportunities, and many
more factors.
The survey is the most common method of gathering sociological information. It includes, firstly, a verbal or written address of the researcher to
a certain group of people (the respondents) with questions the content of
which represents the problem at the level of empirical indicators and, sec-
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ondly, registration and statistical processing of the responses received, as
well as their theoretical interpretation. The main function of a survey is to
test a hypothesis about the existence and nature of relations between different variables. The following types of survey are distinguished:
1. In terms of the forms and conditions of the sociologist's communica-
tion with the respondent and the method used for obtaining information:
written surveys (questionnaires) and oral surveys (interview);
personal (contact-based) (face-to-face) and distant (contactless) (fill-
ing the questionnaire presented in a newspaper, television, telephone, etc.).
2. In terms of the coverage of the main population:
total polling (the entire general population is polled);
selective survey.
3. From the point of view of frequency:
one-time;
recurring(monitoring, longitude).
4. From the point of view of procedure:
personal — individual surveys are performed;
group — group surveys are performed.
5. From the point of view of the level of formalization:
standardized — surveys are carried out according to a pre-prepared
plan using previously developed tools;
non-standardized — surveys are carried out without pre-prepared
plans or previously developed tools;
partially standardized — there are pre-prepared questions, but they
can change, just as the plan of the survey.
Interviews — conversations are carried out according to a pre-prepared
plan assuming the direct contact of the interviewer (researcher) and respondent. Answers of the respondent are recorded by the interviewer using pen
and paper or a dictaphone.
In terms of procedure, there are the following types of interview
free interview;
standardized;
formal.
Free interview is a long-lasting (several hours) conversation without
strict wording of questions according to the general program and proposed
topic. Such interviews may be used at the exploratory stage. Free interviews
help you clarify existing and formulate new important and relevant questions.
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Standardized interviews require a conversation plan, clear wording
and strict sequence of questions. Standardized interviews with open-ended
questions provide the interviewee more freedom from the point of view of
formulation of responses in comparison with formal interviews. Formal interviews with closed questions minimize possible deviations from the predeveloped plan that can occur on the part of either the interviewer or respondent. The interviewer should record the answers as fully and accurately as
possible. Processing of responses includes classification and coding.
Interviewing rules and guidelines:
1) depending on the type of interview, the following should be prepared:
the plan of the interview; questions are arranged in a specific order. It is necessary to prepare in advance the right quantity of questionnaires, paper and
pens to record the answers. Records should be clear and detailed;
2) interviewing has to be conducted in a separate room, in the absence
of any persons unrelated to the research or distractions;
3) you should identify time that is convenient for the respondent;
4) your appearance should be suitable for the time, topic and identity of
the informant. Success of the interview depends on careful preparation;
5) you should be able to listen to the end without interrupting the inter-
locutor;
6) speech rate should not be too fast or too slow;
7) you have to explain the purpose of the interview and the principle ac-
cording to which the respondent was chosen;
8) emphasize that you are interested in getting information;
9) encourage the interlocutor by means of sympathetic gestures: nods,
observant eyes, echoing to your interlocutor;
10) you should be able to look at the events through the eyes of the in-
terviewee, taking into account the context and mood;
11) your informant is to be sure that your conversation is really impor-
tant, and that the resulting information will be used for research purposes
only. Expression of gratitude to the respondent for the interview.
Questionnaires. A questionnaire survey is effected with the use of a
specially designed questionnaire. Questionnaires allow you to poll a large
number of people (hand-out questionnaires) in a short time and with few or
even none interviewers (questionnaires that are sent by post or being distributed via mass media).
When drawing up a questionnaire, you should take into account the following principles:
166
1. A questionnaire should be based on the psychological specifics of the
interviewee's perception. To ensure psychological involvement of the respondent in the process, your questionnaire should first propose questions
for all, and then for specific categories of respondents. Screening questions
can be used to divide respondents into groups. The following are some examples of such questions. «The following question applies only to the residents of the specified district».
2. It is necessary to take into account the specifics of the audience being
polled. In a mass survey, it is not necessary to explain the specific scientific
goals of the work; it is better to emphasize its practical relevance. When you
poll experts, practical and scientific goals of the study should be specified.
3. The sequence of the questions affects the respondents' answers. Detailing questions should be placed first, and generalizing ones should be at
the end of the corresponding group. If you ask the respondent to first assess
specific aspects of the problem being studied, he/she will be more responsible during the final assessment, as this approach helps respondents better
understand their own feelings.
4. The semantic units of the questionnaire have to be of about the same
size. If a specific unit is dominant, it will affect the quality of answers to
questions from other units.
The structure of a questionnaire. If you are going to interview a lot of
people, your questions have to be clear to each respondent. Questions should
be well formulated, unambiguous and not overloaded with specific terms
unless your research is highly specialized.
A questionnaire consists of several parts: introduction, main part and the
final part. Together, they create a set of questions designed to obtain information on the problem being studied.
A questionnaire starts from introduction, which explains:
who conducts the survey;
what the purpose of the survey is;
how the questionnaire should be filled in;
when and how the questionnaire should be submitted (if it is not a
hands-out questionary);
what is done to ensure privacy.
After the introduction (sometimes at the end of the questionnaire), a so-
cial and demographic unit is usually located. This part contains questions
the main purpose of which is to identify the social-and-demographic characteristics of respondents:
sex;
age;
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marital status;
social status;
the level of education.
A social-and-demographic unit may be either at the beginning of the
questionnaire or in the end. In this case they belong to the final part of the
questionnaire, and the purpose is to eliminate psychological stress of the respondent. In conclusion, the researchers express gratitude to the participants
for filling in the questionnaire.
The main part includes questions which are crucial for the study.
Classification of questions used in questionnaires.
Researchers usually use the following grounds for classification:
1. Form (open-ended, closed, semi-closed / semi-open).
Answers to open-ended questions are given by the respondent in the
form of a free response. Closed questions include possible answers. Semi-
closed questions are a combination of the two above-mentioned types.
Closed questions may be:
1) dichotomic. Such questions include two mutually exclusive choices,
such as Yes and No;
2) multivariate (menu). Respondent receives several possible answers,
and he/she may select one, several or all of them depending on the conditions specified in the questionnaire;
3) scale. The answer is represented by a scale, and the respondent
should choose one of the options. For example: How much time does it take
you to get to work:
a) 30 minutes;
b) 45 minutes;
c) 1 hour;
d) more than one hour.
2. Function (contact, control, filter, and buffer questions):
1) contact questions — such questions are used to establish contact
with the respondent, describe the topic area of research, and stimulate positive motivation. They are intended to make the respondent interested in participation in the survey, facilitate their immersion in the problem under consideration. Therefore, contact questions should be simple and clear so that
respondents can easily provide answers;
2) control questions — these questions are designed to validate the re-
liability and sincerity of responses. Such questions are repeated in the questionnaire in modified forms but they always have the same meaning;
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3) filter questions — these are included in the questionnaire for the se-
lection of respondents. Such questions apply not to the entire set of respondents, but only to a certain part of it. For example: If you want to conduct a
study devoted to the problems of young students' families, a question about
the family status of respondents will be a filter. A screening question can be
included before a unit of questions;
4) buffer questions — these questions are designed to shift respondents'
attention upon transition from one topic to another. They can be used to remove unwanted stress and prejudice.
3. Contents (questions about knowledge, motives, beliefs, attitudes and
judgments, facts, behavior).
4. In relation to the respondent (direct, indirect, projective):
1) direct questions are those directly related to the particular respondent;
2) indirect questions are used to identify the views or attitude to the
subject indirectly;
3) projective questions are formulated in such a way that the respon-
dent can imagine the situation described by the researcher. For example: «If
you had an opportunity to move to another city, would you do that»?
5. Location in the questionnaire and importance of questions from the
perspective of the researcher (introductory, main, final):
1) introductory questions are located at the beginning of the question-
naire; they introduce the respondents to the subject area of the research, and,
as a rule, these questions are very simple and easy to understand;
2) the main questions are usually located in the middle of the questionnaire. Their contents are determined by the goals and objectives of the research. A specific unit of questions may correspond to a specific research
problem. Questions from a particular unit may be arranged together, sequentially or among the questions from other units;
3) the final questions are at the end of the questionnaire. They are in-
tended to release the respondent's psychological tension. Here you should
thank the respondent for spending his/her time participating in the survey.
Questionnaires should not take more than 45 minutes to complete, de-
pending on the number of questions.
Issue 2. Analysis of the documents
Analysis of documents is the second most important method of obtaining sociological information. However, this method is normally used to
complement and verify the information obtained by a survey. On the other
hand, the study of the object of the intended research always begins with the
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analysis of the documents. From the point of view of sociology, documents
are represented by various media containing information that remains unchanged. Documentary sources can be classified according to a number of
characteristics:
1) according to the purpose of creation: targeted and existing instruments — targeted documents such as biographies are created at the request
of the researcher; existing documents such as diaries or letters have been
created independently of the researcher;
2) according to the form of presentation:statistical and verbal;
3) according to the general importance: official and non-official. Official documents are those issued by the government: laws, declarations, resolutions, and documents prepared by the administrative authorities; nonofficial documents include letters, diaries, and memoirs;
4) by the method of recording information: written and printed documents, iconography, paintings, movies and photographs, various audio and
video records.
The use of documents in a sociological research may involve different
types of their analysis: analysis of the circumstances of the document creation, analysis of content, quantitative and qualitative analysis (content
analysis).
Issue 3. Observation: main types,
requirements to the performance
Observation as a method of gathering sociological information involves
direct recording of events according to a premeditated procedure. Observations are classified in accordance with various characteristics.
Field observation and laboratory observation: Field observation is carried out in natural conditions of the social object; laboratory observation
takes place in experimental conditions and situations intentionally created by
the researcher.
Standardized (controlled) and non-standardized (uncontrolled) observation. To conduct a standardized observation, the researcher needs a list of
events to be monitored; in addition, it is necessary to define the conditions
and situation, develop guidelines for the observation and rules of behavior
for the observer, define the method of recording and uniform codifiers for
the observed phenomena. Non-standardized observation is conducted in accordance with general guidelines and objectives for recording events and
results. Free-form entries are made in the process of observing, or later from
memory.
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