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Файл:Социологические методы для устойчивого развития города. Учебное пособие для обучающихся по направлениям подготовки 07.03.01 Архитектура, 38.03.04 Госу
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velop alienated or socially tense relationships. In addition, there is also spatial differentiation, which may be based on different grounds: national, religious, ethnic and cultural, which reinforces and maintains the social stratification of the society, creating an aggressive atmosphere with a high level of
crime. The size, density, texture (grain), shape and pattern of the structure
are the main aspects of the urban material form, which greatly affects the
quality of urban life.
Urban lifestyle is specific, but it retains many traditional features
which are based on mental archetypes. L. Wirth, author of «Urbanism as a
Way of Life», explains: «Because the city is the product of growth rather
than of instantaneous creation, it is to be expected that the influences which
it exerts upon the modes of life should not be able to wipe out completely the
previously dominant modes of human association. To a greater or lesser degree, therefore, our social life bares the imprint of an earlier folk society, the
characteristic modes of settlement of which were the farm, the manor, and
the village.»34 Restoration of ecological mentality, actualization of deep archetypal images «Man-Nature-Environment» become possible subject to
joint efforts of science, education, law, government, religion, church, and
family. In today's multicultural city, which combines multiple different mentalities, the search for the forms and channels of environmental socialization
of citizens becomes even more vital. The formation of the sustainable environment, a sustainable city is only possible through the development of new
environmental thinking and new environmental culture.
PRACTICAL ISSUES AND SOLUTIONS
1. Suggest your own version(s) of the translation into Russian of the
English term «sustainable development».
2. Did the concept of sustainable development emerge naturally in the
course of the events in the global history? And if so, what is this pattern like?
3. How modern trends in urban development contribute to the sustain-
able development of the society?
4. Explain the reasons for the «gentrification», which, along with the
improvements to the historic center, also involves «pushing» socially vulnerable population to the suburbs.
34
Wirth, L. Urbanism as a Way of Life // L. Wirth. Selected works of sociology.
Institute of Scientific Information on Social Sciences of the Russian Academy of
Sciences, М., 2005. P. 93—118.
131
5. Show the relationships between the concepts of «economic growth»,
«socio-economic development», «sustainable development» and «urban de-
velopment».
6. Present your own version of social imperative of sustainable devel-
opment for the modern society.
7. Name the priority factors of social risk in the modern society.
8. Outline the major risk factors for the sustainable development of
modern Russia.
9. Name the Russian researchers you know who studied the issues of
sustainable development.
10. Name the foreign researchers you know who studied the issues of
sustainable development.
11. Give examples of countries where the following phenomena are cur-
rently observed: a) sustainable development; and b) non-sustainable development. Explain the corresponding phenomena.
12. Give examples of the regions of Russia where the following phe-
nomena are currently observed: a) sustainable development; b) nonsustainable development. Explain the corresponding phenomena.
13. In your opinion, how can science (biology, geography, economics,
sociology, etc.) potentially increase the sustainability of development: a)
Russia and b) humanity in general.
14.
Is deviant behavior an attribute (a compulsory characteristic) of ur-
ban lifestyle, as L. Wirth believed?
15.
What kind of consequences (positive or negative) dominate in the
process of «globalization» of urban life?
16.
My personal urban space: where would I take my guests to show
them the city and tell them about myself?
17. How does the city influence my behavior and relationships with
other people?
18.
Which of my problems can I classify as «urban problems»?
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3. Barkhin, B.G. The architecture and the city. M. : Science, 1979. 223 p.
132
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135
3. INTERACTION BETWEEN HUMAN BEINGS AND NATURE
IN THE CITY: BIOSPHERIC COMPATIBILITY
INTRODUCTION TO THE LECTURE
When studying this topic, students are introduced to the concepts of biosphere, technosphere, noosphere, biospheric compatibility, as well as to the
principles of transformation of cities in order to improve their biospheric
compatibility and enable them to contribute to human development.
THE GOAL AND THE KEY OUTCOMES OF THE TRAINING
The purpose of training in this subject area is to introduce students to
the environmental problems of modern cities, the nature of the interaction
between man and nature in the western and eastern cultures, the crisis of
technogenic civilization and the search for the ways out of the crisis with the
help of modern environmentally friendly, resource-saving technologies.
Intended key outcomes of the training: raising the students' awareness of
the seriousness of the environmental situation in the modern world, promoting ecological mindset and professional readiness to implement the principles of biosphere compatibility in urban planning.
Issues discussed at the lecture:
1. The socio-ecological approach to the study of the city: Chicago
School.
2. City as a part of biotechnosphere.
3. Biospherically compatible cities and settlements as the main task of
urban development.
Keywords: biosphere, noosphere, technosphere, anthroposphere, biotechnosphere, biospheric compatibility, ecological construction, ecotechnologies, spatial planning, organization of the architectural environment.
Issue 1.
The issues of social ecology and ecology of the city were first studied
by the researchers of the Chicago School of Sociology. This school also
focused on sociological case studies of urban problems, the use of quantitative methods in the study and rigorous methodologies for data analysis. The
specifics of the urban studies conducted by the Chicago school was in the
The socio-ecological approach to the study of the city:
Chicago School
136
combination of problems: on the one hand, to obtain specific results and
develop practical recommendations to solve the problems, on the other
hand, to obtain new knowledge about the relationship and mutual influence
of the city and the environment, the social structure of the city and the
social groups living there, social processes in the city, human behaviour.
R. Park, the founder of the Chicago School, interpreted a city as a complex
organism which can be understood only in relation to the environmental,
economic, social, cultural, political, psychological and other problems.
The premise of this social-ecological approach is that the society, as a
social system, should be studied in the context of its environment, i.e. the
physical system. Each social entity, as an element of the system (individual,
society, group, institution, etc.) exists and is localized in the physical environment. Being linked to the environment is a feature which humans have in
common with plants and animals, so the study of social life can use some of
the principles developed in the ecology of plants and animals. By the analogy with plants and animals, which live in a particular environment and are
related to it, it is also necessary to study social entities. The level of existence at which these general ecological principles are applicable to human
society is described as biotic (link to article). At this level, people act as living organisms, are related to each other in this system, compete with each
other and fight for living space and resources.
Above the biotic level, there is cultural level. At this level, people do
not just adapt to the environment, but interact with each other as social beings able to set goals, developing their actions at the background of the interpretation of the expected reactions of others, and performing social roles.
The cultural level of society is the level of the established customs, norms,
values, and conventions. It is there that the most complex form of human
social behaviour becomes possible, that is, collective (corporate) action; and
it is fundamental to the principle of cooperation. The main function of cultural conventions is social control, regulation of biological impulses of humans, restriction.
As a part of the ecology of the city, patterns of functioning and growth
of the city were identified, and the problems of zoning and district differentiation of urban space were examined, as well as the territorial distribution of
various activities, social groups and issues.
Issue 2. City as a part of biotechnosphere
In the first half of the twentieth century a theory of the biosphere and the
noosphere emerged, based on the works of V.I. Vernadsky. The scientist
considered the biosphere to be a special geological body with the structure
137
and functions determined by the specifics of the Earth and the space, and the
living organisms, populations, species, and all the living matter to be the
forms, the levels of organization of the biosphere. To indicate the area of
interaction between nature and society and the future state of the biosphere
transformed by the collective intelligence and labor of mankind, V.I. Vernadsky adopted the term «noosphere», suggested back in 1927 by the French
mathematician E. Le Roy. He believed that in the future the humans would
treat nature and its resources in a more reasonable way, trying to preserve, restore and improve them. However, the concept of noosphere did not receive
any further development, and is now rarely used.
The interaction of noosphere with our environment, the nature of the
Earth, i.e. biosphere, is effected through technosphere. Technosphere is a
set (system) of objects and processes created as a result of intelligent transformatory activities of people [2]. Survival and development of humans and
society throughout the history of civilization only became possible due to the
development of the material world: housing construction, processing of raw
materials to the finished product which meets the needs of people. Countless
transformations enabled the humanity to create an artificial world parallel to
natural one and to secure a safe existence there for themselves.
The system of the technosphere consists of the following:
technical artifacts as such, i.e. equipment as an object and its socio-
cultural importance;
specific technical knowledge and ability, rules, theories, their cultural
value;
technical activities;
specific technology-oriented mindset;
the system of the relations between man and nature in which technol-
ogy acts as an intermediary.
However, with the development of the humanity, the role of the technosphere and the alienation from the biosphere have been increasingly growing. Today the technosphere is undergoing rapid development based on intensive use of all the available resources of the Earth. Certainly, on the one
hand, the high level of technology and equipment creates favourable conditions for the development of culture, economy, provides a high material
standard of living of society. But on the other hand, the process of globalization and the development of consumer society lead to exacerbation of the
current problems of the biosphere: exhaustion of the mineral resources, environmental degradation, demographic decline in technologically advanced
regions of the world. The technosphere is acquiring an absolutely dominant
position.
138
In the 2nd half of the twentieth century, the term biotechnosphere
emerged, meaning the biosphere which includes the technosphere, created by
human beings, as its integral part. The biosphere and the technosphere are
closely related, inseparable, and influence each other to a great extent. Humanity is part of the biosphere, and technology as a set of technical means
and methods makes up the technosphere, which exists within the biosphere,
was created on its basis and built into it.
The city as a derivative of the technosphere has had a devastating impact on the biosphere throughout almost the entire history of mankind. Since
the beginning of industrialization, the negative impact on the nature of the
city has increased. The changes in the structure of the soil, underground water imbalance, and many other impacts on nature are related to cities. Louis
Wirth, the founder of the theory of urbanism as a way of life, emphasized
that the city also has a detrimental effect on the human psyche. The fast pace
of life, impersonal social links, and competition dominating over cooperation
force people to be in constant stress, feel «lonely in the crowd».
Specific types of anthropogenic impact on the biosphere include:
1. Pollution of the environment with hazardous waste. One of the most
pressing environmental problems nowadays is the pollution of the environment with industrial waste and waste from consumption, especially hazardous waste. Waste concentrated in the landfills, waste heaps, and unauthorized waste dumps is a source of pollution of air, groundwater and surface
water, soil and vegetation. All the waste is divided into domestic waste and
industrial waste (waste from manufacturing companies).
2. Noise impact. The major sources of anthropogenic noise are the
transport (road, rail and air transport) and industrial enterprises. The greatest
noise impact on the environment is produced by motor transport (80 % of
the total noise). Nowadays, the level of traffic noise on the roads of Moscow, St. Petersburg and other large Russian cities during the day reaches
90…100 dB, and even at night in some areas it does not fall below 70 dB
(the maximum permissible noise level for the night is 40 dB).
3. Biological contamination. It refers to the situation when anthropo-
genic impact results in the introduction of species (bacteria, viruses, etc.)
uncharacteristic for this particular ecosystem, which leads to the deterioration of the living conditions of the natural biotic communities or adversely
affects the health of humans.
4. The exposure to electromagnetic fields and radiation, as well as some
other types of influence. At the current stage of the development of scientific
and technological progress, humans make significant changes to the natural
139
magnetic field, giving new directions to geophysical factors and dramatically
increasing the intensity of human impact on the environment. The main
sources of this impact are electromagnetic fields from power lines and electromagnetic fields of radio and radar stations.
Issue 3. Biospherically compatible cities and settlements
as the main task of urban development
Vice President of the Russian Academy of Architecture and Construction Sciences V.A. Ilyichev believes that it is in the cities where the work on
the solution of environmental problems has to start. He developed the basic
principles of the transformation of modern cities into biospherically compatible and contributing to human development, as well as the formulae for
the calculation of the humanitarian balance of biotechnosphere.
The humanitarian balance of the biotechnosphere is a system of
equations, which defines standard quantitative relations between the following:
1) the potential of the life of the biosphere, population and the number
of places where the needs of the population can be satisfied in the regions;
2) the need of the people and the technosphere to use the resources of
the biosphere and the ability of the biosphere of the region to meet those
needs.
The calculations of these balances enable people to act reasonably in
maintaining and developing the biosphere. And this has long been the issue
of growth, not the development. Delineating the limits of growth, D. Meadows, one of the authors of «Limits to Growth: A Report for the Club of
Rome», said that what is really needed is not growth but development. If de-
velopment requires physical expansion, it should be limited, maintained
within the framework of sustainability, taking into account all the actual
costs and expenses.
Therefore, it is necessary to change the behavioural patterns in relation
to the urban environment, to revise the basic values of the Western manmade culture, to reject the ideals of consumer society. The Western culture
has a powerful transformative function in it. Human activity here is directed
outwards, to the transformation of the environment. Relationship to the nature in the West is utilitarian, predatory, unlike in the traditional East, where
the interaction with the environment is based on adapting to it and noninterference. However, the industrially-determined type of civilization began
to exert strong pressure on the East, forcing it to join the process of modernization. Japan, China, South Korea and several other countries have embarked on the path of industrial and post-industrial development. As a result,
today the East is concerned with the same problems as the West.
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