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quantum mechanics. In fact, quantum cryptography rests on two pillars of 20th
century quantum mechanics the Heisenberg Uncertainty principle and the
principle of photon polarization. According the Heisenberg Uncertainty
principle, it is not possible to measure the quantum state of any system without
disturbing that system. Thus, the polarization of a photon or light particle can
only be known at the point when it is measured. This principle plays a critical
role in thwarting the attempts of eavesdroppers in a cryptosystem based on
quantum cryptography. Secondly, the photon polarization principle describes
how light photons can be oriented or polarized in specific directions. Moreover,
a photon filter with the correct polarization can only detect a polarized photon or
-way-
the Heisenberg Uncertainty principle that make quantum cryptography an
attractive option for ensuring the privacy of data and defeating eavesdroppers.
Charles H. Bennet and Gilles Brassard developed the concept of quantum
cryptography in 1984 as part of a study between physics and information. Bennet
and Brassad stated that an encryption key could be created depending on the
amount of photons reaching a recipient and how they were received. Their belief
corresponds to the fact that light can behave with the characteristics of particles
in addition to light waves. These photons can be polarized at various
orientations, and these orientations can be used to represent bits encompassing
ones and zeros. These bits can be used as a reliable method of forming onetime
pads and support systems like PKI by delivering keys in a secure fashion. The
representation of bits through polarized photons is the foundation of quantum
cryptography that serves as the underlying principle of quantum key distribution.
Thus, while the strength of modern digital cryptography is dependent on
the computational difficulty of factoring large numbers, quantum cryptography is
completely dependent on the rules of physics and is also independent of the
processing power of current computing systems. Since the principle of physics
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will always hold true, quantum cryptography provides an answer to the
uncertainty problem that current cryptography suffers from; it is no longer
necessary to make assumptions about the computing power of malicious
attackers or the development of a theorem to quickly solve the large integer
factorization problem.
The global quantum cryptography market size is expected to grow from
USD 101 million in 2018 to USD 506 million by 2023, at a Compound Annual
Growth Rate (CAGR) of 37.9% during the forecast period. The growing
incidents of cyber-attacks in the era of digitalization, increasing cybersecurity
funding, rising demand of next-generation security solutions for cloud and IoT
technologies, and evolving next-generation wireless network technologies are
expected to drive the growth of the global quantum cryptography market.
Increasing need to encrypt critical information without any leakage is set
to drive the growth of solutions segment.
The quantum cryptography solutions segment includes the revenue
generated from Quantum Key Distribution (QKD) platforms, QKD servers,
virtual encryptors, QKD distributors, key and policy managers, SDK to integrate
cryptography, quantum cryptography communication device, quantum security
gateway, Quantum Random Number Generator (QRNG), hackerbox, quantum
secure communication network products, and repeaters, along with factors
essential for the implementation of quantum cryptography. This solution helps in
encrypting the critical information without being leaked midway, which is
gaining traction among various security companies and has enabled them to
invest in quantum cryptography [15].
1. Quantum cryptography is based on three main principles.
2. You disturb the system if you measure its quantum state.
3. Eavesdroppers can measure the polarization of the photons.
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4. The laws of quantum mechanics make intercepting secret message
impossible.
5. Polarization filter destroys photons while measuring them.
6. Charles H. Bennet and Gilles Brassard developed the concept of quantum
cryptography used the Heisenberg Uncertainty to state the laws of
quantum mechanics.
7. Polarization of photons in various directions hinders using them in
quantum cryptography.
8. Quantum key distribution is performed via the representation of bits
through polarized photons.
9. Quantum cryptography Quantum cryptography relies on the laws of
physics, not on the processing power of computing systems.
10. Complexity of realization quantum key distribution prevents
cryptographers from using it widely.
11. Applying quantum cryptography is a highly profitable and promising
business.
Vocabulary Section
9. Render the following text into Russian
In practice, quantum cryptography has been demonstrated in the
laboratory by IBM and others, but over relatively short distances. Recently, over
longer distances, fiber optic cables with incredibly pure optic properties have
successfully transmitted bits up to 60 kilometers. Beyond that, BERs (bit error
rates) caused by a combination of the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle and
microscopic impurities in the fiber make the system unworkable. Some research
has seen successful transmission through the air, but this has been over short
distances in ideal weather conditions. It remains to be seen how much further
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technology can push forward the distances at which quantum cryptography is
practical.
10. Complete the text by translating Russian phrases given in brackets
Given that the cryptosystems (1. ,
) by quantum computers, what would it take for people to
switch to new cryptosystems safe in a quantum world, and (2.
)? First of all, (3.
). There are alternative cryptosystems such as lattice-based
systems or the McEliece system, but (4.
).
a new system cannot be broken by a quantum computer
Systems
will only satisfy this
To complicate matters, (8.
). (9. ,
) with the efficiency of RSA, special cases or new
variants of the systems are being proposed. However, the special properties these
systems have that make them more efficient (10.
) to classical or quantum attacks.
11. Render the following sentences into English
1.
2.
3.
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4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Speaking Section
12. Work in groups of three. Find and present information about quantum
computers, the history of quantum computing, the current state of things and the
future
Reading Section
12. Read the text. Summarize the ideas
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Text B. A Quantum Key Distribution Example
The following is an example of how quantum cryptography can be used
to securely distribute keys.
a photon gun to send a stream of photons randomly chosen in one of four
polarizations that correspond to vertical, horizontal or diagonal in opposing
directions (0,45,90 or 135 degrees).
For each individual photon, Bob will randomly choose a filter and use a
photon receiver to count and measure the polarization which is either rectilinear
(0 or 90 degrees) or diagonal (45 or 135 degrees), and keep a log of the results
based on which measurements were correct vis--vis the polarizations that Alice
selected. While a portion of the stream of photons will disintegrate over the
distance of the link, only a predetermined portion is required to build a key
sequence for a onetime pad.
Next, using an out-of-band communication system, Bob will inform
Alice to the type of measurement made and which measurements were of the
correct type without mentioning the actual results. The photons that were
incorrectly measured will be discarded, while the correctly measured photons are
translated into bits based on their polarization. These photons are used to form
the basis of a onetime pad for sending encrypted information. It is important to
point out that neither Alice nor Bob are able to determine what the key will be in
advance because the key is the product of both their random choices. Thus,
quantum cryptography enables the distribution of a one-time key exchanged
securely.
Now let us suppose that a malicious attacker attempts to infiltrate the
cryptosystem and defeat the quantum key distribution mechanisms. If this
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malicious attacker, named Eave, tries to eavesdrop, she too must also randomly
Hence, Eve will have an equal chance of selecting the right and wrong
filter, and will not be able to confirm with Alice the type of filter used. Even if
Eve is able to successfully eavesdrop while Bob confirms with Alice the protons
he received, this information will be of little use to Eve unless she knows the
correct polarization of each particular photon. As a result, Eve will not correctly
interpret the photons that form the final key, and she will not be able to render a
meaningful key and thus be thwarted in her endeavors. In sum, there are three
significant advantages of this system.
First, the Heisenberg Uncertainty principle means that information
regarding photons cannot be duplicated because photons will be destroyed once
they are measured or tampered with. Since photons are indivisible, once it hits a
detector, the photon no longer exists.
Secondly, Alice and Bob must calculate beforehand the amount of photons
needed to form the encryption key so that the length of the one-time pad will
correspond to the length of the message. Since mathematically Bob should receive
about 25 percent of transmitted photons, if there is a deviation for the predetermined
fixed number, Bob can be certain that traffic is being sniffed or something is wrong
in the system. This is the result of the fact that if Eve detects a photon, it will no
inability to copy an unknown
quantum state. If Eve attempts to create and pass on to Bob a photon, she will have
to randomly choose its orientation, and on average be incorrect about 50 percent of
the time enough of an error rate to reveal her presence.
Video Section
14. Watch the video Quantum Cryptography Explained and prepare its summary
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UiJiXNEm-Go
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Revision Section
Progress Self-Test
Grammar
I. Choose the correct form of the verb
1. In recent years, many authentication protocols for the wireless network
proposed / are proposed / have been proposed.
2. Any system granting access to clients can / must / should include a separate
method for authenticating the user.
3. The Internet built / is built / was built -to-end
4. But gateways create / creates / are created their own overlay networks and
may be involved in ISO level 2 and level 3 routing.
5. Gateways can / should / must grant different users different levels of trust.
6. Wireless devices often exist / are existing / existed on subnets that do not
support / aren‟t supporting / aren‟t supported the full Internet addressing
scheme.
7. More and more applications access / are accessed / are being accessed
through wireless systems, including commerce, medical, manufacturing, and
others.
8. A single breach or failure can / should / must result in the privacy and security
of the network being compromised.
9. The next report will devote / will devoted / will be devoted to VPN.
10. The practical part of our work will complete / will be completed / will have
been completed by the end of the year.
11. Just like Bob, to read the message Alice can / may / has to guess which type
of polarization to measure; and like Bob, half of her guesses will be wrong.
12. Other techniques, which are of interest against weaker ciphers, and which
partially account for the fact that DES has sixteen rounds, instead of eight, such
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as hill-climbing techniques and genetic algorithms, discussed / are discussed /
are discussing in the next section.
13. Block encryption algorithms can / should / must be used in a number of
different modes, such as ``electronic code book'' (ECB) and ``cipher block
chaining'' (CBC).
14. After the system upgrade is determined / has been determined / will be
determined, it is important to evaluate the impacts of the system upgrade on the
mission of the facility and the cost.
15. If the estimated risk for the threat spectrum judges / is judging / is judged to
be unacceptable, upgrades to the system may be considered.
16. This description include / includes / is included the type of adversary, tactics,
and capabilities (number in the group, weapons, equipment, and transportation
mode).
17. Evaluation focus / focuses / is focused on the IT security parts of the product
or system and those parts of the operational environment that may directly affect
the secure use of IT elements.
18. The subject of criteria for the assessment of the inherent qualities of
cryptographic algorithms don‟t cover / doesn‟t cover / is not covered in the CC.
19. For a number of years MD5 is / has been / was a favorite, but recent efforts
show / showed / have shown that its 128-bit length may not be enough.
20. If you need / needed / are needed a public key that require / requires is
required far fewer bits (e.g., for a smartcard), then you might use elliptic curve
cryptography.
24 points
II. Choose the correct variant of the non-finite form
1. Our to propose / proposing / proposed authentication scheme is based on the
public key cryptosystems, but mobile users only do symmetric encryption and
decryption.
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2. Lists of vulnerabilities are already available, to show / showing / showed flaws
in many existing products.
3. Instead of a gateway to run / running / run proxy server software as well as to
protect / protecting / protected the internal network, however, those functions are
split: the proxy server host now resides on the DMZ subnet, while an internal
screening router serves to protect / protecting / protected the internal network
from the public machines.
4. The simplest way to implement / implementing / implemented a firewall is by
placing packet filters on the router itself.
5. Authentication is the process of ensure / ensuring / ensured that a user or
system is who the user claims to be.
6. Strong authentication is usually taken to combine / combining / combined at
least two authentication components from different areas (i.e., two-factor
authentication).
7. Tunneling is generally done by encapsulating the private network data and
protocol information within the public network protocol data so that the tunnel /
tunneling / tunneled data is not available to anyone examining the transmitted
data frames.
8. On the average, Bob will guess the correct setting 50 percent of the time, so
Alice has to send 2n photon pulses to generate / generating / generated n bits.
9. Special tools or skills to hide messages in digital files using variances of a null
cipher are not necessary.
10. To read / Reading / Read the first character of every word in the first
message or the second character of every word in the second message will show
the following hidden text.
11. If one can, in addition, ignore some of the bits of A and B, one has a
truncated differential for the cipher attack / attacking / being attacked.
24 points
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