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Shoe a form of footgear that covers the foot up to the ankle and
that is intended as a protection from cold, dampness, or rough terrain.
In addition to shoes, other basic types of footgear are sandals,
moccasins, boots, slippers, and mules. The sandal has a flat sole of
leather or wood fastened to the foot by straps, thongs, or a knob
between the toes. The moccasin is distinguished by a sole that extends
up around the foot to form some part or all of the upper section of the
shoe. This is a primitive form of footgear that is still worn by hunters
because of its flexibility and because it gives greater protection against
dampness than shoes with a seam between the sole and the uppers. The
boot consists of a sole and an upper part that extends above the ankle
to protect the leg from cold, wetness, or dangerous conditions, such as
snakebite or thorny plants. The slipper is a soft shoe, often intended for
indoor wear, with uppers generally made of fabric and sometimes lined
for winter wear with wool or fur. Mules are slippers that consist of a
sole and an upper that covers only the toes.
Materials
Shoes have been made of various substances, depending on the
raw material available and the varying climatic conditions in different
parts of the world. Thus wooden shoes were worn in forested Europe;
clogs (wooden soles with straps for support) in the warm Middle East,
India, and Japan; tree bark moccasins in Scandinavia; and straw
sandals and fabric shoes in Korea and China. The people of
predominantly cold countries have always worn high boots, of which
Russian boots in black or red leather are typical. The Laplanders' boots
have moccasin feet with turned-up toes, and the people of Tibet,
Bhutan and Nepal in the Himalaya wear high boots made from the skin
of the hairy yak.
Leather has been the principal material for making shoes.
Undoubtedly the first material used for shoes and the most widely
available, leather has also proved to have the most suitable qualities.
Stone Age man was unable to cover himself with any other material as
large as the skin of the animal he had killed for food, and it is probable
that he also wrapped pieces of hide around his feet to protect them
against the cold, the rough ground, or the sharp shards of flint from
which he made his tools. When the hide dried and cracked, primitive
man softened it with animal oils and fats the first effort at leather
dressing.
With the dawning of personal vanity, man began to experiment
with vegetable dyes to alter the color of his skin clothes. In so doing,
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he chanced upon a method of preserving the hide from putrefying and
by accident turned it into leather. Dressing and curing hides by natural
oils and vegetable dyes were practiced until the 20th century, when
tanning came to be done chemically with chromium salts. Vulcanized
rubber has been increasingly used for footwear in the 20th century.
Synthetic rubber, discovered during World War II by Waldo Semon, is
now the most important shoemaking material, providing hardwearing,
waterproof soles. Also, plastics are used, especially for uppers.
Shoes have always been made on a molded shape called a last,
traditionally of maple wood, but now often made of plastic or
aluminum. A wooden last of the Neolithic Period was found in
Switzerland, and many iron lasts made by the Romans have been dug
up in England. Complicated machinery has been made to perform
every process that was formerly done by hand in the making of a shoe,
but great skill is still needed on the part of the operator to turn out a
satisfactory machine-made article
.
History
Until the age or cheap mass production, shoes were generally
considered a mark of rank or prestige. Common men walked barefoot,
and their feet became callous, helping them to escape much of the
discomfort that would result from not wearing shoes. The nobility, on
the other hand, felt obliged to wear shoes as a proof of gentility, that
they could not bear roughness or dirt. In China, in order to indicate
their incapacity for physical work, upper-class parents bound their
daughters' feet to prevent normal growth and to produce a small,
twisted "lily foot." As a result, wealthy Chinese women could scarcely
walk in their tiny shoes.
Early Shoes
Shoes were unnecessary in warm climates. In ancient Egyptian
wall paintings only kings and priests are shown wearing sandals, made
of plaited reeds or, as in the case of Tutankhamen, of finely tooled
leather. People in cooler climates wore shoes much earlier. Egyptian
wall paintings at Beni Hassan (2000 b. c.) and at Thebes (1450 b. c.)
depict Syrians, and Minoans from Crete, wearing an assortment of
elaborate sandals and boots. The meticulous art of the Assyrians has
left us detailed designs of their elaborate and sophisticated sandals on
the reliefs from Calah (modern Nimrud) and Nineveh (about 800 b. c.).
Ankle-high boots with turned-up toes were characteristic of the
Hittite culture, and it has been suggested that the Etruscans may have
come from the same stock because figures in Etruscan tomb paintings
of a much later date wear identical boots. This curious design of
turned-up, pointed toes, perhaps originally a symbol of the horn of the
moon, has persisted in all the Muslim countries of the Middle East.
Classical Shoes
Greek sandals were developed from those of earlier Middle
Eastern peoples, with many individual designs of straps over tin-instep
and intricate lacing up the leg. To prevent the laces from slipping
down, the heel piece was often extended for several inches up the back
of the leg and was provided with eyelets through which the laces were
passed after being twisted around the leg. Robert Graves writes in The
Greek Myths that Greek warriors wore only one sandal on the left foot,
then shield side because that foot was advanced during a hand-to-hand
struggle and could be used for kicking an enemy in the groin. Thus the
left was the hostile foot and was never set first on the threshold of a
friend's house. The custom survives among modern soldiers, who
begin marching with the left foot foremost.
Greek women appear to have worn buskins, soft boots that came
up above the ankle. Greek vase paintings show women at their toilet
holding such footgear. Further evidence that buskins were worn
especially by women is provided In an Attic vase on which male
actors, impersonating women, are shown putting on these soft boots.
The Romans wore more ornate sandals than the Greeks, with the
uppers covering a great deal of the foot but still leaving the toes bare.
The also wore the calceus, a shoe that covered the foot to the ankle like
a modern shoe, and buskins that reached halfway up the calf. Roman
senators wore black buskins with a crescent-shaped clasp of ivory or
silver on the instep. Buskins were often open up the front, laced across,
and lined with the skins of small animals, the heads and claws of
which were allowed to hang down over the tops as ornament. Roman
soldiers derived their title caligati from their strong sandals, or boots,
called caliga, which were often studded with nails.
Early Medieval Shoes
In the less advanced cultures of northern Europe, people wore
hose fitted with feet, like babies leggings, as protection from cold and
moisture. Over these they wore oblong pieces of leather bound to the
feet by leather thongs. The thongs, laced through punched holes, two
in the front and one at the back, drew up the corners of the leather sole
over the toes and behind the heel. The thongs were then crisscrossed
up the leg, over the baggy hose, in the fashion typical of the Anglo-
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Saxons, Gauls, Goths, or Franks.
In the cultural centers of the early Christian world, the craft of
shoemaking became highly developed and important in the 4th
century. Beautifully decorated shoes and boots can be seen in
Byzantine and other early manuscripts and in contemporary statues,
where the details of soles, uppers, and fastenings of shoes are clearly
indicated. These early shoes generally covered the foot and were laced
over a slit at the ankle that provided room for the foot to enter easily.
The Normans introduced into England neat ankle boots with
contrasting bands around the tops. Robert, the eldest son of William
the Conqueror, was nicknamed Curta Ocrea, meaning "short boot," but
it is not known if this was because he originated the style or because he
continued to wear such boots long after they had gone out of fashion.
The most usual footwear in the 11th and 12th centuries was the closed
shoe of soft leather or cloth, with a pointed toe that gradually
lengthened, as the elongated Gothic style became predominant in
northern Europe.
I4th and 15th Century Shoes
Boots, sometimes Pulled over the knees, were first worn in the
14th century as a protection for the legs when riding horseback and
continued in fashion through several centuries. The boots had no
fastenings, and their loose tops were either turned over into cuffs or
allowed to fall in creases, according to the stiffness of the material
used.
From the end of the 14th century and all through the 15th, as
headdresses and hats rose into points on the head, the toes of shoes also
became more and more elongated to balance the design. The shoes of
princes had toes that extended 24 inches (60 cm) beyond the foot,
stuffed with fiber or straw to keep them in shape. These shoes were
called poulaines or crakows, suggesting that the fashion may have
originated in Poland. As these long points became inconvenient, they
were sometimes tied up to the knees with chains. But the frequency of
accidents caused by this exaggerated fashion and the mincing walk
assumed by his nobles caused Edward IV, a man not given to
fripperies, to enforce a sumptuary law restricting the length of the toe
to 2 inches (5 cm).
During the 14th and the 15th centuries shoes were often made of
such delicate materials that cloglike overshoes, called pattens, were
introduced for outdoor wear. They were made of iron, wood, or even
cork (for kings), and their toes and heels were thickened or fitted with
pegs to lift the sole above wetness and dirt. The pattens, held on the
foot by straps over the instep, could be easily slipped off by the wearer
before he entered the house. Similar to pattens were chopines, high
platforms, to which shoes or mules were permanently attached. In the
16th century, chopines became very high, like stilts. Hamlet,
addressing one of the Players, says: "Your ladyship is nearer to heaven
than when I saw you last, by the altitude of a chopine."
16th Century Shoes
A complete reversal of styles, from the pointed Gothic to the
blunted German fashion, took place in the early 16th century. The toes
of shoes were squared to match the wide costumes familiar to us from
portraits by Holbein. Made of soft, embossed Italian leather, velvet, or
cloth, the square toes were rolled over and back and often slashed to
allow contrasting material to puff through the slits. In contrast to
previous fashions, the uppers were very low cut and barely covered the
toes and the backs of the heels, leaving the instep bare and giving the
impression of a people stricken with the painful complaint of hammertoe. Again the law stepped in, this time restricting the width of shoes
instead of their length.
By 1550 shoes had acquired a more natural shape, with toes more
pointed, and had uppers that were higher over the instep, with the front
often rising to a point. The sides, cut low to ease the foot into the
shoes, evolved a little later into straps that were fastened with a buckle
or a ribbon bow over the high front.
Heels had first been put on shoes by the 1590's. Perhaps they
were introduced by Queen Elizabeth I of England, who wished to
increase her small stature. Heels immediately became high fashion,
and the bows or rosettes that decorated the straps or toes became more
and more pronounced. It has been said that the people of medieval and
Elizabethan England were better shod than those of other nations
because the enormous amount of meat they consumed made leather
more readily available and cheaper than in other countries of Europe.
17th Century Shoes
The mid-17th century saw the gradual squaring of the toe again,
this time without a puff. Shoes had firm leather soles and heels, and the
uppers extended over the instep, with a tongue or flap over which the
side pieces fastened with a square buckle. These buckles grew larger,
the tongues longer, and the heels higher as the century advanced.
Enormous bows gradually replaced the buckles. In 1660, Louis XIV of
France was presented with a pair of shoes with bows 16 inches (40 cm)
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across and with high red heels. Such shoes delighted the King and his
court so much that the fashionable male world continued to totter on
high heels and trip over wide bows for another 10 years. The high
heels worn by Louis to enhance his rather meager height were curved,
making them less clumsy looking than a straight heel. (A high curved
heel is still called a Louis heel.)
The 17th century was also the era of the Boot. Continental wars
in the early part of the century made the boot the most practical
footwear for men. In the swashbuckling period of The Three
Musketeers, boot tops were widened, and loose stockings were
festooned above them a detail eventually so exaggerated that it
produced the astonishing effect of manly figures in petticoat breeches
with lace frills around their knees falling into wide boot tops.
I8th Century Shoes
The end of the 17th century and the early 18th century (another
period of war) saw the rise to popularity of the heaviest boot yet made.
The jackboot (so called because a metal frame, or jack, held the leather
tops from slipping down or creasing) had bucket tops and spurs carried
on wide flaps over the instep. These boots were sometimes called
Ramillies boots, after the Battle of Ramillies in the War of the Spanish
Succession. Wide flaps covered the knees in some styles, but the
leather behind the knee was cut away so that the knee could bend.
Because long boots were expensive, the common soldier was given a
cheaper imitation in the form of long gaiters, made of canvas coated
with pipe clay, which covered the tops of his ankle boots and buttoned
up the sides to well above the knees.
Shoemaking in the 18th century reached a peak of daintiness for
formal wear with the use of brocades or soft kid, either embroidered or
sewn with spangles. Shoes had pointed toes and high curved heels
and were often ornamented with a diamond buckle over the tongue.
Matching pattens were usually made with a thicker sole to prevent
the delicate shoe fabric from becoming soiled. Women's shoes
became more important as skirts were shortened in the 1789s.
However, some Englishmen, countrymen at heart, would wear their
riding boots on every occasion unless forcibly refused admittance.
19th and 20th Century Shoes
The Napoleonic Wars again made boots essential for men. On the
British side, the famous Wellington boot named after the general, was
merely a long-fronted riding boot that became the fashion wear for all
officers. The French, Poles, and Germans wore a shorter boot, with a
scalloped front from which hung a tassel; it was worn with tight, braiddecorated breeches patterned after the romantic uniform of the Hessian
hussars.
As breeches lengthened into trousers during the early 19th
century, flat pumps often replaced boots for men, although sometimes
the trousers were drawn down over the boot and strapped under the
foot in a fashion that lasted for many years. In the epoch of prudery
that occurred in the 19th century, women s feet suffered an eclipse
under long skirts. Their shoes during this period remained unchanged
in shape, resembling blunt-toed dancing shoes, until the 1860's when,
for a short period of emancipation, little ankle boots were allowed to
show under shortened crinolines.
It is usually assumed that the practice of making right and left
feet in footwear began in the 19th century. However, this comfortable
fashion was not unknown in classical and medieval times, but it is
curious that it did not become a general practice sooner.
Mass production of shoes began in the nid-19th century and, with
the clothing industry in general, was responsible for one of the worst
forms of sweatshop labor. But mass production also enabled the poor
to be better shod many having been shoeless previously.
Ankle boots, laced up the front or with elastic gussets in the
sides, continued to be worn by men through the late 19th century and
until World War I. Men's clothes then became more youthful in
appearance, partly as a result of the smart uniforms worn during the
war. From that time on, oxfords, laced up the instep over a tongue and
with or without toe caps, have been a universal fashion, in calf for day
wear and in patent leather for the evening.
Women's shoes in the late 19th and early 20th centuries
continued to have heels, usually of the low, curved Louis shape. They
became more fancy as skirts were slightly shortened or held up to
show the feet. High laced or buttoned boots were worn in winter and
outdoors. Such boots with light kid uppers and patent leather vamps
were fashionable with the slit hobble skirt about 1912. The much
shorter skirts of the 1930's emphasized stockings and shoes, which
became higher-heeled and single- strapped. Finally they developed into
the court shoe, or opera pump, which has become a classic. Wedge
soles copied from the Chinese shoe in which the sole and heel are all
one piece enabling the heel to be high but more stable were introduced
during World War II. The platform shoe, with a very thick sole and
high, hick heel, was introduced in 1947.
The most disastrous fashion for both sexes was the narrow,
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pointed shoe that became the rage in the 1950's. When allied, in
women's shoes, to the high "pin," or "spike" heel of wood around a
metal rod, they spelled ruin for ankles, toes, and floors. But, with the
usual persistence of a fashion that is much criticized on rational
grounds, the style lasted several years before being replaced by its
opposite square toes and thick, medium-high heels. In men's shoes,
casual attitudes toward grooming made suede shoes with crepe-rubber
soles popular, in the mistaken theory that suede needs less care than
shiny leather. Slip-on shoes began to replace the classic oxford. Both
men and women wore sandals and Swedish clogs with contour-fitted
soles.
During the 20th century different kinds of shoes have been
carefully designed to serve specific needs. There were special shoes for
sports track, golf, cricket, football, tennis, rock-climbing,
mountaineering and for occupations mining, diving, and fire fighting.
Many shoes, fashionable or utilitarian were made of synthetic
materials.
Customs and Folklore
Shoes have figured prominently in Eastern religious observances.
Orthodox Jews, Muslims, and Hindus all remove their shoes before
entering the holy places of their faith. The custom probably originated
as a gesture of humility when shoes were so rare as to be considered a
mark of dignity and the shoeless foot a sign of servitude.
Throwing a shoe at the bridal pair and tying shoes to the bridal
car at weddings are relics of an ancient custom. The bride's parents
once gave her shoes to the bridegroom as a sign that she had left their
home forever and that he assumed dominion over her after the
wedding.
Shoemakers have their own tutelary saint in Saint Crispin
(martyred in 287), and through him their trade is called the "Gentle
Craft." Crispin was a Christian missionary who practiced the trade of
shoemaking by night and preached the Gospel by day. An angel, it is
said, miraculously provided leather so that his shoes could be bought
cheaply by the poor.
The psychological importance of shoes is apparent from their
central place in many fairy tales and in folklore. Cinderella, the
downtrodden, is singled out for fame and fortune through a tiny glass
slipper into which only her foot would fit. In the 17th century, when
the fashion for boots was at its peak, magic boots figure prominently in
such tales as Puss in Boots and Jack the Giant-Killer. In The Twelve
Dancing Princesses, the princesses shoes are mysteriously worn out
every morning a symbol of rebellion against a tyrannical father. An old
tale retold by the brothers Grimm, the story expresses the girls' wish to
transfer their duty to the 12 handsome suitors who danced with them
secretly through the night. Shoes are a good-luck symbol in the rather
pious History of Little Goody Two-Shoes, possibly by Oliver
Goldsmith. And The Red Shoes by Hans Christian Anderson, is a
cautionary tale of shoes imbued with personality that finally dance out
of control, carrying the wearer to her death.
Manufacturing Processes
Leather is a material created through the tanning of hides and skins of
animals, primarily cattle hide. The tanning process converts the putrescible skin
into a durable, long-lasting and versatile natural material for various uses.
Leather can be made from cows, pigs, goats, and sheep; exotic animals
such as alligators, ostriches, and kangaroos; and even dogs and cats, who are
slaughtered for their meat and skin in China, which exports their skins around the
world. Because leather is normally not labeled, you never really know where (or
whom) it came from.
Most leather comes from developing countries such as India and China,
where animal welfare laws are either non-existent or not enforced. In India, a
PETA investigation found that workers break cows‘ tails and rub chili peppers
and tobacco into their eyes in order to force them to get up and walk after they
collapse from exhaustion on the way to the slaughterhouse.
In the U.S., many of the millions of cows and other animals who are killed
for their skin endure the horrors of factory farming—extreme crowding and
deprivation as well as castration, branding, tail-docking, and dehorning—all
without any painkillers. At slaughterhouses, animals routinely have their throats
cut and some are even skinned and dismembered while they are still conscious.
Leather is an important material with many uses. Together with wood,
leather formed the basis of much ancient technology. The leather industry and the
fur industry are distinct industries that are differentiated by the importance of
their raw materials. In the leather industry the raw materials are by-products of
the meat industry, with the meat having higher value than the skin. The fur
industry uses raw materials that are higher in value than the meat and hence the
meat is classified as a by-product. Taxidermy also makes use of the skin of
animals, but generally the head and part of the back are used. Hides and skins are
also used in the manufacture of glue and gelatin.
There are a number of processes whereby the skin of an animal can be
formed into a supple, strong material commonly called leather. All of them are
called tanning. This process can be performed using either various vegetables.
Another method to achieve the same goal is to use chromium.
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Today, most leather is made of cattle skin, but many exceptions exist.
Lamb and deer skin are used for soft leather in more expensive apparels.
Kangaroo skin is used to make items which need to be strong but flexible,
it is the material most commonly used in high quality bullwhips. Kangaroo
leather is favored by some motorcyclists for use in Motorcycle Leathers
specifically because of its lighter weight and higher abrasion resistance compared
with cowhide, thus providing greater protecting in case of a fall on the roadway.
Kangaroo leather is also used for high performance soccer footwear.
Leather made from more exotic skins has at different times in history been
considered very beautiful. For this reason certain snakes and crocodiles have been
hunted to near extinction.
In the 1970s, ostrich farming for their feathers became popular, and ostrich
leather became available as a side product. Ostrich leather is considered one of
the finest and most durable in the world and is currently used by many major
fashion houses such as Hermès, Prada, Gucci, and Louis Vuitton. Ostrich leather
has a characteristic "goose bump" look.
In the United States, bison leather has become popular. It is used for
gloves, jackets and some baseball gloves. It is rugged but supple and has a waxy
feel.
The leather manufacturing process is divided into 3 fundamental subprocesses: preparatory stages, tanning and crusting. All true leathers will undergo
these sub-processes. A further sub-process, surface coating can be added into the
leather process sequence but not all leathers receive surface treatment. It's
difficult to have a list of operations that all leathers must undergo, as there are so
many types of leather.
The preparatory stages are when the hide/skin is prepared for tanning.
Preparatory stages may include: preservation, soaking, liming, unhairing,
fleshing, splitting, reliming, deliming, bating, degreasing, frizing, bleaching,
pickling and depickling.
Crusting is when the hide/skin is thinned, retanned and lubricated. Often a
coloring operation is included in the crusting sub-process. The chemicals added
during crusting have to be fixed in place. The culmination of the crusting subprocess is the drying and softening operations. Crusting may include the
following operations: wetting back, sammying, splitting, shaving, rechroming
neutralisation, retanning, dyeing, fatliquoring, filling, stuffing, stripping,
whitening, fixation, setting, drying, conditioning, milling, staking and buffing.
Tanning is the process that converts the protein of the raw hide or skin into
a stable material which will not putrefy and is suitable for a wide variety of end
applications. The principal difference between raw hides and tanned hides is that
raw hides dry out to form a hard inflexible material that can putrefy when re-
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