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Файл:Английский язык для аспирантов. English for Post-Graduate Students. Учебно-методическое пособие по английскому языку для аспирантов
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Think carefully about your use of impersonal and personal expressions,
taking care to ensure that your writing is always clear and unambiguous.
Using tenses
Scientific writing frequently uses the past tense, particularly when the main
focus of the writing is to describe experiments or observations that took place
prior to the time of writing, for example:
The data were analysed.
The solution was decanted.
The temperature was recorded.
However, the past tense may not be appropriate for everything that you write
and sometimes you will need to combine different tenses in the same piece of
writing. For example, the use of different tenses can help to clarify what happened
or what you did in the past (past tense), what you conclude (present tense) and
what will be an issue for the future (future tense). The following sentences show
how different tenses can be used to achieve clarity in your written work.
e.g. The experiment was carried out in a sterile environment (past tense for a
statement of what happened). It is particularly important to avoid contamination
(present tense for a statement that is a general 'truth'). It will be necessary to ensure
that the same conditions are replicated in future experiments (future tense for a
recommendation for the future).
An appropriate use of past, present and future tenses can contribute to a clear
and unambiguous writing style.
Sentence length
Sentences that are too short and poorly connected can be irritating to read.
Conversely, sentences that are too long and rambling are difficult to follow and are
likely to be confusing. Use a sentence length that allows your thoughts to flow
clearly. As a general rule there should be no more than 20-25 words in any one
sentence. You may be able to reduce your sentence length by:
cutting out unnecessary words
like might replace along the lines of
42
now may be just as appropriate as at the present time
we can now turn our attention to could perhaps be cut out entirely;
dividing complex sentences into separate phrases or sentences.
If a breakdown occurs it is important that alternative supplies are available
and the way that this is done is for the power stations to be linked through the high
voltage transmission lines so that all of them contribute to the total supply of
energy and an unexpectedly large demand can be handled.
can be re-written thus:
If a breakdown occurs it is important that alternative supplies are available;
this is done by linking power stations through the high voltage transmission lines.
All of them thus contribute to the total supply of energy and an unexpectedly large
demand can be handled.
Summary
Writing well requires as much care and thought as the experiments or
research that are written about. This study guide has defined a number of
characteristics of good writing, and has highlighted some of the key choices that
scientific authors must make if they are to write with accuracy and clarity.
Text 2
Read the text below paying attention to the characteristics of science
language
Exercise 2. Read the extract from a scientific article and say what are the
most characteristic features of this text.
SOCIAL MOVEMENT ORGANIZATIONS: GROWTH, DECAY AND
CHANGE
MAYER N. ZALD
Vanderbilt University
ROBERTA ASH
University of Chicago
43
Social movements manifest themselves, in part, through a wide range of
organizations. These organizations are subject to a range of internal and external
pressures which affect their viability, their internal structure and processes, and
their ultimate success in attaining goals.
The dominant line of approach to the sociological study of the
transformation of social movement organizations (hereafter referred to as MO's)
has been the institutionalization and goal displacement model of organizational
transformation. This model, which stems from Weber and Michels’s takes the
following line of analysis: As an MO attains an economic and social base in the
society, as the original charismatic leadership is replaced, a bureaucratic structure
emerges and a general accommodation to the society occurs. The participants in
this structure have a stake in preserving the organization, regardless of its ability to
attain goals. Analytically there are three types of changes involved in this process;
empirically they are often fused. The three types of change are goal transformation,
a shift to organizational maintenance, and oligarchization. Goal transformation
may take several forms, including the diffusion of goals, in which a pragmatic
leadership replaces unattainable goals with diffuse goals, so that the organization
can pursue a broader range of targets. However, according to the Weber-Michels
model, whatever the form of goal transformation, it is always in the direction of
greater conservatism (the accommodation or organization goals to the dominant
societal consensus). Organizational maintenance is a special form of goal
transformation, in which the primary activity of the organization becomes the
maintenance of membership, funds, and other requirements of organizational
existence. It too is accompanied by conservatism, for the original goals must be
accommodated to societal norms in order to avoid conflicts that could threaten the
organization's viability.
Oligarchization may be defined as the concentration of power, in the
Weberian sense, in the hands of a minority of the organization's members. (For our
purposes, bureaucratization is that form of oligarchization which stresses a
hierarchy of offices and prescribed rules for conducting affairs.) Of course, some
44
MO's begin with a relatively oligarchical structure and de-oligarchization may
occur. But the Michels part of the model treats mainly of the movement from
democratic decision structures – a situation of dispersed power, to centralization
and oligarchy. (This process is typically evaluated as morally wrong and as a
prelude to member apathy and organizational conservatism.)
This line of sociological analysis has a distinguished place in the literature –
if only for its imaginative concepts – goal displacement, iron law of oligarchy,
routinization of charisma, and the like. Nevertheless, as a statement on the
transformation of (social) movement organizations it is incomplete. There are a
variety of other transformation processes that take place including coalitions with
other organizations, organizational disappearances, factional splits, increased
rather than decreased radicalism, and the like. And in fact, the Weber-Michels
models can be subsumed under a more general approach to movement
organizations which specifies the condition under which alternative transformation
processes take place.
Exercise 2. Answer the following questions on the text.
1. What makes this article clear, concise and structured logically?
2. Is the language of the article personal or impersonal?
3. What technical terms have been used in the article?
4. Which abbreviation has been used?
5. Do the authors use mostly active or Passive Voice? Why? Give
examples.
6. Are there any definitions used?
7. Do the authors make references to somebody’s works?
Exercise 3. Write out the underlined words. Find in them prefixes and
suffixes and define their meaning and part of speech. Form from the root as
many derivatives as you can. Give their equivalents in your native language.
Consult the Table in the Appendix III
e.g. movement (движение) – noun. –ment means “state or result of
the action.
Other words: movable (подвижной) – adjective, mover( двигатель,
движущая сила) – noun.
Understanding English
Abbreviation
noun
1.
a shortened or contracted form of a word or phrase, used to represent the
whole, as Dr. for Doctor, U.S. for United States, lb. for pound.
2.
45
an act of abbreviating; state or result of being abbreviated; reduction in
length, duration, etc.; abridgment; summary: His abbreviation of his famous
monograph, an enormous endeavor in itself, made an excellent introduction to the
volume of collected essays of which he was the editor.
3.
a short phrase or reduced form used to represent a larger, more complex
idea, situation, set of beliefs, etc.: “Freedom of speech” has become an
abbreviation for a wealth of debate—and case law—about protesters' rights. The
artist presented an abbreviation of line, plane, and curve; she creates breathtaking
abstract representations of bodies you expect to leap off the canvas and start
dancing.
Acronym
noun
1.
a word formed from the initial letters or groups of letters of words in a
set phrase or series of words, as Wac from Women's Army Corps, OPEC from
Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries, or loran from long-range
navigation.
1. Which common abbreviations or acronyms do you know?
46
1. R.S.V.P.
a) as soon as possible
b) please, reply
c) value added text
d) paid
2. qty
a) as soon as possible
b) please, reply
c) please
d) quantity
e) paid
3. thx
a) thanks
b) please, reply
c) please
d) quantity
e) with reference to
4. e.t.a.
a) thanks
b) for the attention of
c) estimated time of arrival
d) quantity
e) with reference to
5. plscnf
a) thanks
b) for the attention of
c) estimated time of arrival
d) number
e) pleas confirm
6. @
a) at
b) for the attention of
c) estimated time of arrival
d) number
e) please, confirm
7. a/c
a) at
b) account
c) estimated time of arrival
d) number
e) please confirm
8. A.G.M.
a) at
b) account
c) annual general meting
d) number
e) please confirm
9. A.O.B.
a) at
b) account
c) annual general meting
d) any other business
e) please, confirm
10. attn
a) at
b) for the attention of
c) please
d) quantity
e) with reference to
11. I.P.O.
a) copies to
b) chief executive officer
c) initial public offer
d) any other business
e) approximately
12. ASAP
a) as soon as possible
b) please, turn over
c) per week
d) value added tax
e) paid
2. Which of them are used most often?
3. On a pace of paper write the list of abbreviations you use in your
science writing and explain their meaning.
Exercise 3. Choose the proper options for the following abbreviations:
Abbreviations Test
47
13. re
a) as soon as possible
b) please, reply
c) please
d) quantity
e) with reference to
14. C.O.D.
a) copies to
b) Chief Executive Officer
c) initial public offer
d) cash on delivery
e) approximately
15. approx.
a) at
b) account
c) annual general meeting
d) any other business
e) approximately
16. E.G.M.
a) copies to
b) Chief Executive Officer
c) Initial purchase offer
d) Cash on delivery
e) Extraordinary general
meeting
17. G.D.P.
a) gross domestic product
b) Chief Executive Officer
c) Initial purchase offer
d) cash on delivery
e) extraordinary general
meeting
18. G.N.P.
a) gross domestic product
b) gross national product
c) initial purchase offer
d) cash on delivery
e) extraordinary general
meting
19. plc
a) as soon as possible
b) please, reply
c) please
d) value added tax
e) paid
20. no
a) thanks
b) for the attention of
c) estimated time of arrival
d) number
with reference to
21. lb
a) public limited company
b) gross national product
c) pound (weight)
d) incorporated
e) limited company
22. C.E.O.
a) copies to
b) Chief Executive Officer
c) annual general meting
d) any other business
e) approximately
23. I.O.U.
a) public limited company
b) I owe you
c) pound ( weight)
d) incorporated
e) limited company
24. Jr.
a) public limited company
b) I owe you
c) pound ( weight)
d) junior
e) limited company
25. mo.
a) public limited company
b) I owe you
c) pound (weight)
d) junior
e) month
26. mnth
a) public limited company
b) I owe you
c) pound ( weight)
d) junior
e) month
48
27. Inc.
a) gross domestic product
b) gross national product
c) hire purchase
d) incorporated
e) extraordinary general
meeting
28. H.P.
a) gross domestic product
b) gross national product
c) hire purchase
d) cash on delivery
e) extraordinary general
meeting
29. VAT
a) public relations
b) please, turn over
c) per week
d) value added tax
e) paid
30. N/A
a) not applicable
b) I owe you
c) pound (weight)
d) junior
e) month
31. p.w.
a) public relations
b) please, turn over
c) per week
d) per annum weight
e) paid
32. NB
a) not applicable
b) pay attention to this
c) pound ( weight)
d) month
e) junior
33. plc
a) public limited company
b) gross national product
c) hire purchase
d) incorporated
e) limited company
34. PA
a) pay attention to this
b) not applicable
c) personal assistant
d) per annum
e) month
35. p.a.
a) not applicable
b) pay attention to this
c) personal assistant
d) per annum
e) month
36. Ltd.
a) gross domestic product
b) gross national product
c) hire purchase
d) incorporated
e) limited company
37. pd.
a) not applicable
b) pay attention to this
c) personal assistant
d) per annum
e) paid
38. PR
a) public relations
b) pay attention to this
c) personal assistant
d) per annum
e) paid
39. cc.
a) copies to
b) per annum
c) annual general meeting
d) any other business
e) approximately
40. PTO
a) public relations
b) please, turn over
c) personal assistant
d) per annum paid
49
Understanding English
Word formation
Before doing the following exercises study the Wordformation Table in
Appendix 3, 137p.
Exercise 4. Decide what part of speech the following words are and give their
Russian equivalents.
Achievement - achieve, resistance - resistant, assistance - assist - assistant,
celebration - celebrate, difference - different, city - citizen, nation - national nationality, measure - measurement, develop - development, act - active - activity,
contain - container, discover - discovery - discoverer, literature - literary, graduate
- graduation - undergraduate - post-graduate, educate - education, progress progressive, act - action - activity - active, govern - governor - government.
Exercise 5. Form nouns from the following verbs with the help of suffixes:
–er,–or.
To lead, to write, to read, to visit, to speak, to sleep, to act, to direct, to conduct, to
drive, to fight, to mine, to report, to sing, to skate, to swim, to teach, to travel, to
sail, to invent ,to found, tocompose.
Exercise 6. Form nouns from the following wordswith the help of suffixes -ist,
-ism, -ian. Give their Russian equivalents.
Special, social, art, capital, economy, international, piano, technic, mathematics,
statistics, politics, music, electric, Russia, Hungary, Canada, India.
Exercise 7. Form nouns from the following verbs with the help of the suffix
-ment. Give their Russian equivalents.
Develop, achieve, move, arrange, treat, state, improve, agree, equip, govern,
require, measure, announce, pave.
Exercise 8. Form adjectives from the following verbs with the help of suffixes
-ful и –less. Give their Russian equivalents.
50
Beauty, thank, hope, doubt, care, aim, use, shape, fruit, power, thought, harm,
colour.
Exercise 9. Form adjectives from the following verbs with the help of suffixes able, -ible. Give their Russian equivalents.
Change, convert, prevent, break, compare, desire, profit, read, comfort, respect,
expect.
Exercise 10. Find suffixes in the following words and say what part of speech
they belong to.
British, foolish, understandable, heartless, pitiless, successful, experiment,
function, musician, socialist, artist, capitalism, professional, fundamental,
industrial, doubtful, useful, different, treatment, creative, attractive, peaceful,
dangerous, elementary, childish, active, economic, director, worker, passage,
marriage, silence, freedom, kingdom.
Exercise 11. Form verbs from the following word with the help of suffix -en:
Red, tight, soft, deep, short, dark, bright, weak, black, white, sweet, sharp,
strength.
Exercise 12. Form verbs from the following word with the help of suffix -1у:
Bad, first, part, quick, strong, short, silent, rapid, wide, extreme, cruel, kind,
happy.
Exercise 13. Give Russian equivalents of the following verbs. Decide what part
of speech the belong to.
science, scientific, scientist;
industry, industrial, industrious;
cold, coldly, coldness;
dark, darkness, darken;
happy, happily, happiness, unhappy;
equal, equally, unequal, equality;
free, freedom, freely;
attention, attentive, attentively;
sun, sunny, sunless;
care, careful, careless, carefully, carelessness;
to differ, different, difference, indifferent;
England, English, Englishman;
fame, famous.
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