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Файл:Английский язык для аспирантов. English for Post-Graduate Students. Учебно-методическое пособие по английскому языку для аспирантов
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knowledge, not to create or invent something. There is no obvious commercial
value to the discoveries that result from (2)… research.
For example, (3)… science investigations probe for answers to questions
such as:
How did the universe begin?
What are protons, neutrons, and electrons composed of?
Most scientists believe that a (4)….; fundamental understanding of all
branches of science is needed in order for progress to take place. In other words,
(5)… research lays down the foundation for the (6)…. science that follows. If
(7)…. work is done first, then (8)…. spin-offs often eventually result from this
research. As Dr. George Smoot of LBNL says, "People cannot foresee the future
well enough to predict what's going to develop from (9) … research. If we only did
(10) ….. research, we would still be making better spears."
(11)…. research is designed to solve practical problems of the modern
world, rather than to aqcquire knowledge for knowledge's sake. One might say that
the goal of the 12. … scientist is to improve the human condition .
Some scientists feel that the time has come for a shift in emphasis away
from purely 13. … research and toward (14). … science. This trend, they feel, is
necessitated by the problems resulting from global overpopulation, pollution, and
the overuse of the earth's natural resources.
For example, (15). … researchers may investigate ways to:
improve agricultural crop production
treat or cure a specific disease
improve the energy efficiency of homes, offices, or modes of
transportation
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Speaking
Exercise 7. So many people, so many opinions. Below there is a more
detailed list of steps for researching a problem. Look them through and say
which steps can be useful for you and which ones can be neglected. Discuss the
results with your partner.
Basic Steps in the Research Process
This list of steps is a guideline for you to use. Not everyone will do these
steps in the same order and you may go back and forth between them.
1. Select a general topic that interests you in some way.
2. List key words to help you look up information about the topic.
3. Go to an encyclopedia, or other reference source, to get an overview
of the topic.
4. Make source cards for whatever sources you will use for
information.
5. Using the general overview, begin to focus the topic into something
you can cover well.
6. Write a statement of purpose about the focused topic.
7. Brainstorm questions about the focused topic.
8. Group questions under similar headings.
9. Add any new questions you can think of under those headings.
10. Repeat step 2, listing more key words from your newly focused topic
and questions.
11. Make a list of possible sources that can answer your questions.
Identify the best sources to use.
12. Find the sources in the library, on the computer, etc. Make a source
card for each one you use.
13. Begin making notecards. Use your brain stormed questions to guide
your note taking.
14. Change your statement of purpose into a draft thesis statement.
Method
Overall Purpose
Advantages
Challenges
questionnaires,
surveys,
checklists
when need to
quickly and/or
easily get lots of
information from
people in a non
threatening way
-can complete
anonymously
-inexpensive to
administer
-easy to compare and
analyze
-administer to many
people
-can get lots of data
-many sample
questionnaires
already exist
-might not get
careful feedback
-wording can bias
client's responses
-are impersonal
-in surveys, may
need sampling
expert
- doesn't get full
story
interviews
when want to fully
understand
someone's
impressions or
experiences, or
learn more about
their answers to
questionnaires
-get full range and
depth of information
-develops
relationship with
client
-can be flexible with
client
-can take much time
-can be hard to
analyze and
compare
-can be costly
-interviewer can
bias client's
responses
15. Make an outline of your headings. If you are ready to print your
outline click here.
16. Refocus your thesis statement if necessary.
17. Write the body of your paper from your notes.
18. Cite any necessary information with parenthetical citations.
19. Write your introduction and conclusion.
20. Write your Works Cited (it is similar to a bibliography).
21. Create a title page.
22. Evaluate your work.
23. Turn in your paper on time.
When you're finished, celebrate!
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Overview of Research Methods
The following table provides an overview of the major methods used for
collecting data during evaluations.
14
documentation
review
when want
impression of how
program operates
without
interrupting the
program; is from
review of
applications,
finances, memos,
minutes, etc.
-get comprehensive
and historical
information
-doesn't interrupt
program or client's
routine in program
-information already
exists
-few biases about
information
-often takes much
time
-info may be
incomplete
-need to be quite
clear about what
looking for
-not flexible means
to get data; data
restricted to what
already exists
observation
to gather accurate
information about
how a program
actually operates,
particularly about
processes
-view operations of a
program as they are
actually occurring
-can adapt to events
as they occur
-can be difficult to
interpret seen
behaviors
-can be complex to
categorize
observations
-can influence
behaviors of
program participants
-can be expensive
focus groups
explore a topic in
depth through
group discussion,
e.g., about
reactions to an
experience or
suggestion,
understanding
common
complaints, etc.;
useful in evaluation
and marketing
-quickly and reliably
get common
impressions
-can be efficient way
to get much range
and depth of
information in short
time
- can convey key
information about
programs
-can be hard to
analyze responses
-need good
facilitator for safety
and closure
-difficult to schedule
6-8 people together
case studies
to fully understand
or depict client's
experiences in a
program, and
conduct
comprehensive
examination
through cross
comparison of
cases
-fully depicts client's
experience in
program input,
process and results
-powerful means to
portray program to
outsiders
-usually quite time
consuming to
collect, organize and
describe
-represents depth of
information, rather
than breadth
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Latin
Abbreviation
Definition
post meridiem
P.M.
before the middle of the day
Circa
c.
number, by number
exempli gratia
e.g.
against
et cetera
etc.
Doctor of Philosophy
id est
i.e.
around, about
et alii
et al.
and the others
Anno Domini
A.D.
that is to say
ante meridiem
A.M.
in the year of the Lord
Medicinae Doctor
M.D.
compare
numero
no.
after the middle of the day
Philisophiae Doctor
Ph.D.
and the rest
versus
vs.
for the sake of example
pro tempore
pro tem.
improvise
postscriptum
P.S.
see
Ibidem
ibid
in the same place
ad libitum
ad.lib.
for the time being
Vide
v.
Doctor of medicine
confer
cf.
that is
videliset
vid.
Afterthought
Understanding English
English abbreviations derived from Latin
Many abbreviations used in the English language were derived from Latin
words. They are used so frequently that we often forget that the letters actually
represent Latin words.
Exercise 8. Study the Latin word and its abbreviation. Draw a line from
the abbreviation to the definition un English.
Check yourself comparing your answers with the correct ones in the
Appendix 1 p. 117
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UNIT 1.2 WRITING A SUMMARY
Writing
1. Before reading the text try to answer the question which is in its title.
2. While reading the find the answers to the following questions:
What are the motives of research?
What problems arise on the way of a researcher?
According to the author, what is the central task of education?
A question Universities Need to Answer: Why Do
We Research?
Text 3
John Amstromg
Philosopher at University of Melburne
Fundamentally, there are two big motives for research.
On the on hand there is intellectual ambition: the desire to know and
understand the word, to appreciate the best that has been said and thought on the
topics that grip our imaginations.
In one of C.P. Snow’s Cambridge novels there’s an elderly character who
looks back on his early days working under the chemist and physicist, Ernest
Rutherford. “We used to run to our laboratories” he says. They were running
because of the immense excitement of the discoveries that were unfolding.
I used to look with an almost physical longing at books in the philosophy
section of the library – desperate to get to grips with the glory of the ideas they
contained.
Sometimes we call this “blue sky” or “fundamental” research. But, in a
crucial way, what is at stake is the love and devotion brought to certain questions
by (at present) a relatively small number of people.
Many more people would like to be involved in such work than we are, as a
society, willing to pay for. I’ve lost count of the number of people who have told
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me that they would like to have a job in which they spent their time studying
manuscripts or on archaeological digs or mapping the heavens or speculating on
the ultimate nature of good and evil.
While, in fact, they work as public servants, lawyers, estate agents, school
teachers, logistics managers, sales representatives and so on.
It may sound a bit crude to put it this way, but we should look at the issue
for what it is: there is not enough demand for such research. That is, there are not
enough sources of financial input to support these kinds of desired roles.
This raises the first great question that any serious debate about research
must address: if you don’t engage ambitiously with markets or public opinion, how
will you actually pay for the research you want to undertake?
Understandably we like to suppose that “government” in some form or
another will meet the cost. But this in only to put the question one step further
back. What kind of politics would we need to have for governments actually to
direct resources in this way?
Clearly, relatively affluent countries spend large sums of money on all kinds
of things. Why not on the love of knowledge for its own sake?
This is a tantalizing question. It’s tempting to answer it in moral terms. One
wants to explain why it is lovely and good and in the long-term national interest to
support open-ended intellectual ambition.
But the question is not: would that be good and lovely? The question is:
what would have to be the case for such a line of argument to be compelling to
government?
There are many potential goods in the world that never come to fruition.
And it is fair to say that we are, at present, very far from having a political or
national culture in which such arguments would look powerful. It’s no help
blaming other people. That gets us no closer to a good outcome.
The deep issue is this: fundamental and blue-sky research (research
undertaken for the love of knowledge and from motives of sheer intellectual
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ambition) is possible on a large scale only with the profound consent of a whole
society.
And universities – which are the natural homes of intellectual ambition – are
not organized to secure this consent. Those who are fired by the love of knowledge
do not see securing such support as fundamental to what they do.
And at an individual level, of course, the task belongs to no particular
person. Yet, if we are to carry off the huge task of gaining such committed and
widespread support we would have to devote ourselves to a vast project of
engagement. We would have to have this task written into the DNA of research
culture.
And this is the fateful irony. The motive of intellectual ambition very often
goes alongside indifference to public opinion, lack of concern with buy-in from the
wider world, hostility to winning over hearts and minds in large numbers.
We want the support that requires a great public but we don’t want to do the
things that would win the loyalty of a great public. At worst, we want to demonise
the philistines and have their taxes pay for our noble enthusiasms.
I mentioned that there were two motives for research. Aside from the pure
pursuit of knowledge for its own sake, research is linked to problem solving. What
this means is the solving of other people’s problems. That is, what other people
experience as problems.
It starts with a tenderness and ambition that is directed at the needs of others
– as they recognize and acknowledge those needs. This is, in effect, entry into a
market place. Much research, of course, is conducted in precisely this way beyond
the walls of the academy.
And this gives rise to the second great question that universities face with
respect to research. If universities devote more of their energies to engagement
with markets and public opinion, how will they retain a sense of noble mission –
which is one of their defining characteristics? What would the institutions need to
be like to carry this off?
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My concern at this stage is not to provide a precise answer to either of the
great questions. Rather, what I want is to get clear about the questions we really do
have to address. That is, the questions that should be central to the debate.
Fundamentally, we are trying to explain to ourselves why research is good
and how research will be paid for. Our danger is in asking and answering these
questions independently.
We could have a fine account of why research is noble, but fail because we
could not work out how to bring this to fruition in the world. Or we could have an
account of how to make research pay but fail because we missed the whole point:
which is that research is a noble human undertaking.
But not nearly enough people seem to be interested in answering both
questions at the same time.
I believe that it is possible to integrate the two demands. And, in fact, that it
is a central task of education and of culture to achieve such integration.
Our epochal task is to make our best ideals powerful in the world we happen
to have. We must not be Jacobites: devotees of a gracious but lost cause. To avoid
that fate we have to think about love and money at the same time. We have to
answer the two great questions.
Exercise 1. Write a short summary of the article including 120 - 140 words.
Before writing the summary look through the tips below:
How to produce a summary:
1.Read the article to be summarized and be sure you understand it.
2.Outline the article. Note the major points.
3.Write a first draft of the summary without looking at the article.
4. Always use paraphrase when writing a summary. If you do copy a phrase from
the original be sure it is a very important phrase that is necessary and cannot be
paraphrased. In this case put "quotation marks" around the phrase.
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5.Target your first draft for approximately 1/4 the length of the original.
The features of a summary:
1.Start your summary with a clear identification of the type of work, title, author,
and main point in the present tense.
Example: In the feature article "Four Kinds of Reading," the author, Donald Hall,
explains his opinion about different types of reading.
2.Check with your outline and your original to make sure you have covered the
important points.
3.Never put any of your own ideas, opinions, or interpretations into the summary.
This means you have to be very careful of your word choice.
4. Write using "summarizing language." Periodically remind your reader that this
is a summary by using phrases such as the article claims, the author suggests, etc.
5.Write a complete bibliographic citation at the beginning of your summary. A
complete bibliographic citation includes as a minimum, the title of the work, the
author, the source.
UNIT 1.3 ENGLISH AS A LANGUAGE OF SCIENCE
2.1. Do We Use Real English?
Text 1
1. Is it possible for a foreign person to master a perfect English?
2. What do you know about Globish?
3. Read the extracts from different articles below how you understand this
phenomenon.
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