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Файл:The English Language in Use. Everyday Life Communication. Учебное пособие для студентов 1 курса, обучающихся по направлению 45.03.02 Лингвистика
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against it. She said it was the evil gift of the ocean. But she was a kind
woman and a Christian, and finally she agreed. The fisherman understood the
girl’s mother was of noble birth: she was finely dressed, on her neck was a
golden locket, on her thin fingers were precious rings. The fisherman kept all
these things in the hidden place.
The girl differed greatly from all the people living in the neighbourhood.
They were rough, sun-bitten, often far from clean, but the girl resembled a
rare white flower. She was fair-haired, her curly hair sparkled in sun-rays, her
features were exquisite but at the same time there was something domineering
about her. She didn’t conceal her deep disdain towards all the villagers. She
knew she was in that wretched place by mistake and was waiting for happy
changes to come to her life.
Tonogrammes: A tonogramme is a phonetic analogue of musical notes (staff,
stave, musical bar lines), it is the graphical way to record the sounding of
human voice – the specific melody the phrases with different emotional
colouring are pronounced with in the English language. We know that musical
staff consists of series of parallel horizontal lines placed on different pitches
to write the musical symbols on in some harmony. Phonetic tonogrammes are
also presented by parallel horizontal lines – there are two of them: the higher
and the lower line. The space between them (the vertical plane) is the abstract
graphical presentation of the human voice range. The elements placed on the
high pitch of the tonogramme sound prominent: loud and sonorous. On the
contrary, the elements on the bottom of the tonogramme sound subdued. The
horizontal plane reveals the timing of the phrase – if the elements of the
tonogramme are placed close to each other it means that there are very small
time intervals between them, the speech is very fast. If you leave considerable
intervals between the elements of the tonogramme you draw the “picture” of a
very slow speech. For normal speech the space between the elements of the
tonogramme are of medium length.
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To master drawing English tonogrammes one should realize the
principle of division words into syllables. The graphical symbol of a stressed
syllable is a short horizontal line, an unstressed syllable is a dot. The most
typical patterns to place the stressed and unstressed syllables (short lines and
dots) between the higher and the lower bars of the tonogramme are:
1) A “stepping” succession of syllables, gradually falling from the high pitch
level in the descending direction: the first stressed syllable is placed on the
highest pitch level, if there are a few unstressed syllables after the stressed
syllable they are placed on the same level as the previous stressed syllable
forming a “step”; the following “step” is placed a bit lower than the preceding
“step”. Phrases pronounced in this way sound measured and
unemphatic/emotionally neutral, the rhythm is regular, the mood of the
speaker can be characterized as balanced but active. It is the most widely
spread intonation pattern in normal unemphatic speech, especially in official
contexts.
2) A falling succession of syllables, gradually descending from the high pitch
level each following syllable is placed a bit lower than the preceding one.
This intonation pattern doesn’t differ greatly from the stepping head. It also
sounds emotionally neutral and unemphatic.
3) An up-broken succession of syllables. It is a stepping descending model
described in point (1) in which one of the stressed syllables (but not the first
stressed one) rises from its normal position (lower than the preceding stressed
syllable) to the highest pitch level. Such “breaking” of the neutral syllable
descending produces the emphatic effect, making the uplifted word sound
prominent – considerably louder than it would sound in the neutral gradual
descending succession of syllables. The graphical symbol of this accidental
word-rising is an up-pointing arrow under the uplifted syllable.
The essential part of any tonogramme is the symbol of the nuclear tone.
Here is the description of the way to draw the most popular English tones:
Low Fall, Low Rise, High Fall:
1) The graphical symbol of Low Fall is a rounded curve looking like a
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quarter-circle which starts in the middle of the vertical plane of the
tonogramme and ends on the lowest pitch level (on the bottom of the
tonogramme).
2) There are two graphical ways to draw Low Rise: a) if there are no
unstressed syllables after the syllable which takes Low Rise, this tone has the
form of a quarter-circle-like curve which starts on the bottom of the
tonogramme and ends in the middle of the vertical plane of the tonogramme;
b) if there are a few unstressed syllables (dots) after the syllable which takes
Low Rise, this tone is graphically represented by a short horizontal line (the
stressed syllable) on the bottom of the tonogramme and a succession of a few
dots which are gradually rising after the line.
3) The graphical symbol of High Fall is a long curve which starts on the
highest pitch level and falls up to the bottom of the tonogramme.
Note: If there are unstressed syllables before the first stressed syllable they
are drawn on the bottom of the tonogramme. In this case pay attention to the
considerable gap between the unstressed syllables at the beginning of the
phrase (on the bottom of the tonogramme) and the first stressed syllable (on
the high pitch level), this sound effect should be observed while reading texts.
Phonetic Analysis of English Texts
The theoretical background is of certain importance for practical
training of English intonation. Take into consideration the following notes
while preparing a good phonetic reading of the texts from Arakin book I. “A
Visit”, II. “Betty Smith”, III. “Doctor Sandford’s family”, IV. “About Benny’s
cousins”, V. “Doctor Sandford’s house”, VI. “Mr. White comes again”
(Аракин В. Д. 1 курс, p. 54, p. 69, p. 83, p. 83-84, p.113-114, p.126-127).
I.
1. Intonation of greetings. Greetings sound very friendly and warm when they
are uttered with the Fall Rise or with the High Fall followed by Low Rise. For
ex.: “Hello, Betty!” (1). “Good afternoon, Mr. White!” (1).
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2. Intonation of direct address at the end of intonation group. In most cases
direct address at the end does not form a separate intonation group and is
pronounced unstressed. For ex.: “Yes, Mr. White” (1). “Perhaps, some other
day, Betty!” (1).
2. Intonation of general questions. Most typical way of intoning general
questions in English is using “the low rising nuclear tone, this way the
speaker sounds genuinely interested” (3). For ex.: “Is Doctor Sandford in?”
(11). “Is she in bed?” (1).
3. Contrast logical stress. Logical stress is a way of making one or more
words in a sentence sound stronger and more weighty than the other words in
this sentence for different purposes, one of these purposes is making contrast
– to attract the listener’s attention to one object in the context among the
others of the same kind. For ex.: “Is Mrs. Sandford at home?” (11). “She is in
the park with Benny, and old Mrs. Sandford is not well” (1).
4. Intonation of exclamation. Exclamations are used to show speakers’
emotions, this way the High Fall is often used to convey a wide range of
feelings. For ex.: “Oh, that’s a pity!” (1).
5. Intonation of special questions. Most typical way of intoning special
questions in English is using the falling tone, either Low Fall or High Fall, it
depends on the speaker’s range of emotions. The speakers using the high
falling tone sound interested, lively, surprised. For ex.: “What’s the matter?”
(1).
6. Intonation of disjunctive questions. Not in fast speech disjunctive questions
mostly consist of two intonation groups. The first intonation group takes the
falling tone (either Low Fall or High Fall, it depends on the range of speaker’s
emotions), the final intonation group (tag) takes the rising nuclear tone when
“the speaker is not sure of the thing expressed in the first part of the utterance
and he expects an answer” (3). For ex.: “It isn’t the flu, is it?” (1).
7. Intensity stress. To intensify the meaning of one word or the meaning of the
whole sentence, some words can get a greater prominence, a greater force, as
according to the speakers’ mind they carry important, new information or
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render their emotions. For ex.: “She is always glad to see you” (1). “I’m so
sorry Mr. Sandford isn’t at home yet” (1). “Oh, no, it’s a bad cold” (1).
8. Accidental Rise. One of the words in the sentence may be pronounced
“higher in the pitch than the preceding ones to intensify the meaning” (4) of
this word or the meaning of the whole sentence, this way attention is attracted
to this strong word. For ex.: “Doctor Sandford is still in the hospital” (1).
9. Intonation of farewells. Farewells most commonly take the Low Rise. For
ex.: “So long then, Betty” (1). “So long, Mr. White” (1).
10. Intonation of adverbials at the beginning of the sentence. “Adverbials at
the beginning usually form a separate intonation group” (3) are pronounced
with the rising nuclear tone. For ex.: “On Saturday Mr. Sandford is at home
after four” (1).
11. Intonation of statements. Statements can take absolutely different
intonation. The low rising tone in statements can reveal that the speaker is
soothing and reassuring For ex.: “That’s all right” (1). But falling tone is more
typical for statements. The High Fall is very frequently used in statements and
shows that the speaker is personally concerned and friendly. For ex.: “Oh, no,
it’s a bad cold, she’s better today” (1).
12. Close apposition. The close type of apposition is a kind of specifier which
goes before the sressed proper noun. It does not form a separate intonation
group and is mostly unstressed. It can be names of professions, titles, ranks,
polite forms of address etc. For ex.: “Doctor Sandford is still in the hospital”
(11). “…and old Mrs. Sandford is not well” (1).
II.
1. Intonation of statements. The low falling tone is also very common in
statements, it demonstrates that the speaker is serious, considered, definite
and weighty. For ex.: “I am Betty Smith” (1). “My full name is Elizabeth
Louise Smith” (1). “I am a college graduate” (1).
2. Loose apposition. The loose type of apposition, also often called detached,
is a thing that specifies another thing being previously mentioned. It usually
forms a separate intonation group and is pronounced with the same nuclear
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tone as the thing being specified. If the thing which we specify is at the end of
the sentence, it takes the falling nuclear tone and the loose apposition as well
(takes the falling tone), and if the thing we specify is somewhere at the
beginning or in the middle, it takes the rising tone and the apposition logically
too. For ex.: “I am a writer, just a beginner, you know” (11). “My brother-inlaw, Henry Sandford, is married to my elder sister Helen” (1). “They have
only one child, Benny” (1).
3. Parenthesis. Parenthetical words “at the end of the sentence do not form
separate intonation groups” (3) most commonly. For ex.: “I am a writer, just a
beginner, you know” (1).
4. Separation of the subject for emphasis. To attract the listeners’ attention to
the subject (the main thing in the context) and make it important, the subject
of the sentence is separated into a new intonation group and is followed by a
pause. Mostly the separated subject takes the low rising nuclear tone as it is
closely connected with the following part of the sentence. For. ex.: “My full
name is Elizabeth Louise Smith” (1). “My best companions are two girls”
(11).“My brother-in-law is a doctor” (1).
5. Accidental Rise. “I have a lot of friends” (1).
6. Enumeration. Each enumerated element mostly forms a separate intonation
group. “If the speaker wants to accentuate each element of enumeration, all
enumerated elements take the falling tone” (3), this way each element
produces the impression of having great importance for the speaker. If the
speaker does not have any purpose of accentuation, all non-final enumerated
elements take the Low Rise except the final one which takes the falling
intonation, this is the most common way pronouncing things you enumerate.
For ex.: “They are very kind, jolly and well-bred” (1). “We have white mice,
a hedgehog, and a parrot in the house” (1). “He is fond of birds and animals”
(1).
7. Stress in compound nouns, compound adjectives and compound numerals.
Compound nouns have stress on the first stem, compound adjectives have two
stresses, on both stems, compound numerals have two stresses either. For ex.:
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“Most of them are my former school-mates” (1). “My sister is a housewife”
(11). “I am twenty-two” (1). “They are very kind, jolly and well-bred” (1).
8. Intonation of compound sentence. “Compound sentences consist of two or
more simple ones, each of them forms a separate intonation group” (3). The
low rising tone which is frequently used in non-final intonation groups of
compound sentences shows that the simple sentences within the compound
one are closely connected with each other in the sense. For ex.: “He has a
mother, but he has no father”. But also non-final intonation groups within
compound sentences can take the falling tone showing that there is no so
close connection between them and the final intonation groups, they are
complete and important by themselves. For ex.: “Benny is my nephew, he is
four” (1). “But his mother is against it, we have no peace, because of all
Benny’s animals and birds” (1).
9. Intonation of adverbials at the beginning of the sentence. For
ex.:“Sometimes he is naughty” (1). “Now Benny is eager to have a rabbit” (1).
10. Linking “r”. If the word ends in the letter r and the following word begins
in a vowel letter, the sound “r” is pronounced between them. For ex.: “My
sister is a housewife” (1). “But his mother is against it” (1). “My brother-inlaw…” (1). “I am a member of her family” (1).
11. Intensity stress. For ex.: “...we have no peace, because of all Benny’s
animals and birds” (1).
III.
1. Separation of the subject for emphasis. In the following examples the
subject in each sentence is emphasized by means of a pause and the Low Rise
to attract the attention to it, the speaker, describing a five-member family in
the context, accentuates each of them this way. For ex.: “Doctor Sandford’s
family is not very large” (1). “Helen has no parents” (1). “Old Mrs. Sandford
is fifty-eight” (1). “Helen is twenty-six” (1). “Doctor Sandford is thirty” (1).
“Benny is an only child and there are no boys or girls in the family for him to
play with” (1).
2. Intonation of statements. The low falling tone in statements demonstrates
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that the speaker is serious and definite. For ex.: “Old Mrs. Sandford is fiftyeight” (1). “Helen is twenty-six” (1). “Doctor Sandford is thirty” (1).
3. High Fall used for emphasis. High Fall is often used when we want to
underline something and make it prominent. For ex.: “There are five of them”
(1). “The five members of his family are: his mother, his sister-in-law, his son
Benny, his wife Helen and himself” (1).
IV.
1. Direct address at the beginning of the sentence. “Direct address at the
beginning of the sentence forms a separate intonation group” (3) and often
takes the Fall Rise in the friendly conversation or this way the speaker attracts
the listener’s attention. For. ex.: “Granny, have I any cousins?” (1).
2. Direct address at the end of the sentence. For. ex.: “Yes, Benny!” (1).
Sometimes direct address at the end of the sentence can take the rising tone.
“Whats Canada, granny?” (1).
3. General questions. For. ex.: “Granny, have I any cousins?” (1).
4. Intonation of statements. High Fall. The high falling tone in statements
reveals personal concern. For. ex.: “You have two” (1).
5. Intonation of special questions. For. ex.: “Whose children are they? How
old are they?” (1). “Where is it?” (1).
6. Intonation of alternative questions. Alternative questions usually form as
many intonation groups as many alternatives in them. Non-final intonation
groups take the low rising nuclear tone and the final intonation group usually
takes the falling tone. For. ex.: “Are they boys or girls?” (1).
7. Intonation of the word please at the end of the sentence. “The word please
at the end of the sentence does not form a separate intonation group” (3) and
mostly unstressed but for the sake of emphasis the word please can take the
rising tone. For. ex.: “Not so many questions at once, please, Benny!” (1).
8. Loose apposition. For. ex.: “Your cousins are: a five-year-old boy, Georgie,
and a four year-old girl, May. They are your Aunt Emily’s children. They are
in Canada now with their parents: your Aunt Emily, my daughter, and her
husband, Mr. Thomas Brown” (1).
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9. Fall Rise for emphasis. Fall Rise can perform the function of expressing
emotions. It can show that the speaker is very surprised, puzzled, concerned.
For. ex: “What's Canada, granny?” (1). “In the North of America?” (1). “Is it
as far as London?” “But, granny…” (1).
10. Intonation of imperatives. The low rising tone in imperative sentences is
frequently used making them sound as a polite request. For ex.: “Come along,
my dearest” (1).
11. Stepping Head for emphasis. Stepping Head is the most common type of
head used in English, it indicates active and balanced mood of the speaker.
But often the enhanced accentuation of each stressed syllable within the
stepping head makes it sound emphatic and very ponderous. For ex.: “It’s just
the time for your midday milk” (1).
V.
1. Enumeration. Important things and ideas English speakers underline by the
falling tone while enumerating them; both final and non-final elements take
the falling tone. For ex.: “Doctor Sandford’s house is not large, but it is
comfortable and well-planned” (1). “In front of the house there is a green
lawn and a lot of flowers”. (1). If the speaker has no intention to accentuate
anything, he just wants to enumerate things or count them, the low rising tone
is used in all non-final groups and the falling tone in the final one. For ex.:
“On the ground floor there is a kitchen, a pantry, a dining-room, a cosy
sitting-room and Dr. Sandford’s study” (1).
2. Accidental Rise. For ex.: “Doctor Sandford’s house is not large” (1). “But
Doctor Sandford says he must pay a lot of money for the house and the
furniture” (1).
3. Adverbials at the beginning of the sentence. “Adverbials at the beginning
of the sentence form separate intonation groups and often take the low rising
tone” (3) especially when we describe something. For ex.: “In front of the
house there is a green lawn and a lot of flowers” (1). “On the ground floor
there is a kitchen, a pantry, a dining-room…” (1). Adverbials at the end of the
sentence. “Adverbials at the end of the sentence do not form separate
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intonation-groups” (3) and often unstressed. For ex.: “Behind it there is a little
orchard with a few fruit trees in it” (1). But sometimes for definite purposes
speakers want to emphasize the adverbial at the end, in such cases adverbials
have logical stress. For ex.: “There are also several rooms upstairs on the first
floor” (1).
4. Separation of the subject for emphasis. For ex.: “The furniture is modern
and quite new” (1).
5. Intonation of compound sentences. For ex.: “Doctor Sandford’s house is
not large, but it is comfortable and well-planned” (1).
VI.
1. Intonation of greetings. Most common intonation for greetings, conveying
no special attitudes, also formal greetings, take a falling tone, often High Fall.
For ex.: “Good afternoon, doctor” (1). “Good afternoon, Mr. White”. “Glad to
see you” (1).
2. Intonation of the word please at the end of the sentence. The word please at
the end of the sentence is mostly unstressed and continues the melody of the
preceding stressed word. For ex.: ”Come in, please” (1). “Sit down, please”
(1). “Here, please” (1).
3. Intonation of the phrase Thank you. Pronounced with the falling tone,
either with the Low Fall or High Fall, the phrase Thank you renders real
cordial gratitude. For ex.: “Thank you. I'd be glad to” (1). “Here, please.
Thank you, doctor” (1).
4. Fall Rise for emphasis. There can be two communicative centres in a
sentence, if it contains two important words which carry new or significant
information. In this case the first important word is emphasized by the High
Fall and the second important word indicating some additional relevant
information takes the Low Rise. For ex.: “It is Saturday afternoon” (1). “Mr.
White wants to see you, Henry” (1).
5. Intonation of imperative sentences. Typical requests or offers are
pronounced with the low rising or the falling rising nuclear tone. When “the
Fall Rise is used, especially of a divided variant, there can an impression that
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