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20
Unit One
1. a high-income country; 2. atmospheric fallout containing high
levels of lead; 3. the value of manufactured output; 4. preindustrial
economy; 5. large-scale production; 6. crafting of metal goods;
7. textile machinery; 8. the adoption of innovations; 9. economically
less developed countries 10. the abundance of raw materials.
Ex. 3. Give English equivalents of the following:
1. обрабатывающая промышленность; 2. эксплуатационные
расходы; 3. профессиональные навыки; 4. конкурентоспо
собность; 5. объ¸м промышленного производства; 6. про
изводственные мощности; 7. новые индустриальные стра
ны; 8. валовой внутренний продукт; 9. третичная отрасль
промышленности; 10. отраслевая структура; 11. производи
тельность труда; 12. загрязнение окружающей среды; 13. про
мышленные отходы; 14. модернизация, обновление; 15. нефтепродукты.
Ex. 4. Translate the following text into English in writing. Make use
of the Vocabulary List.
I. В доиндустриальной экономике Европы вся деятельность
была направлена на производство продуктов питания и развитие торговли. Для повседневной жизни изготовлялись скобяные изделия, а для сельского хозяйства — деревянные
и металлические изделия. В XVIII веке, когда в Великобритании началась промышленная революция, многие отрасли
промышленности концентрировались в городах. Поскольку
людей привлекала работа, ускорились процессы урбани
зации.
В то время Англия была одной из богатейших стран мира
и имела достаточно развитой потребительский рынок. Вс¸
возрастающий спрос на потребительские товары заставлял
производителей товаров искать новые методы их производ
ства и использовать машины. Внедрение машин увеличива
ло выпуск продукции и удовлетворяло спрос на товары
внутри страны. Продукция отправлялась не только на внут
ренний рынок, но и на рынки других стран.
Широкомасштабное производство появилось в конце
XIX века и получило широкое распространение в США.
Изобилие сырья, наличие деш¸вой рабочей силы и внедре
ние инноваций обеспечивало базу для быстрого роста про
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INDUSTRY
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мышленности. Основным вкладом США в мировое про
мышленное производство в начале XX века было увеличе
ние масштаба производства. Этого удалось достигнуть бла
годаря внедрению методов массового производства на авто
мобильных заводах и установке там поточных линий.
II. После Второй мировой войны свой вклад в мировое
промышленное производство внесла Япония. Ей удалось
модернизироватьсвоипредприятияиувеличитьпроизвод
ственные мощности. Темп роста в промышленности уско
рился, и теперь страна является мировым лидером в судо
строении и одним из главных производителей электронной
техники, автомобилей, стали, химикатов и синтетических
волокон.
Активно проводят индустриализацию и новые индустри
альные страны, ориентируя сво¸ производство как на удовлетворение спроса на внутреннем рынке, так и на экспорт.
Экономически менее развитые страны, такие, как Бразилия,
Китай, Индия, стремятся конкурировать с новыми индустриальными странами пут¸м экспорта своих товаров в развитые страны мира, где доля промышленного производства в
валовом внутреннем продукте постепенно падает. Достигнув
значительных результатов в ряде отраслей промышленности,
эти страны продолжают наращивать свои производственные мощности и развивать сферу услуг.
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III. Отрасли промышленности обычно подразделяют на три
основные группы: первичную (добывающую), вторичную (пе
рерабатывающую) и третичную, или сферу услуг. Изменения
в промышленной структуре определяются либо стоимостью
произвед¸нной продукции, либо изменениями в структуре
занятости. В постиндустриальных странах доля рабочей
силы, занятой в промышленности, падает, а в сфере услуг
возрастает. В развивающихся странах количество занятых
в отраслях промышленности намного выше, чем в сфере
услуг. Многое зависит от особенностей исторического раз
вития страны и е¸ связей с внешним миром.
Переключение стран на сферу услуг означает, что они
сейчас находятся на стадии деиндустриализации. Этому
способствует увеличение доходов населения и увеличиваю
щийся спрос на разного рода услуги, которые они могут
себе позволить. Производительность труда в сфере услуг рас-
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Unit One
т¸т медленно, так как использование механизмов здесь огра
ничено. Они более дорогие по сравнению с промышленны
ми товарами и составляют большую долю в валовом внут
реннем продукте. Этим и объясняется, почему в странах с
высокими доходами сектор услуг постепенно заменяет про
мышленный сектор как ведущий сектор экономики.
IV. Hесмотря на то что большинство стран считает индуст
риализацию позитивным явлением в экономике, она при
носит много вреда окружающей природе. Экологические
проблемы требуют быстрого разрешения и больших денег.
Загрязнение воздуха, земли и воды оказывает пагубное вли
яние на здоровье людей, отравляет окружающее простран
ство вредными веществами и засоряет промышленными
отходами. Одной из главных задач является сокращение по
требляемых промышленностью ресурсов и защита окружающей среды от загрязнения.
Ex. 5. Read and translate the following text. Pay attention to the terms
and make sure you understand them.
One of the reasons for the mystification that obscures economics
is the vocabulary it employs and the way it uses common, ordinary
words not exactly in the way they are used in everyday talk. We
must learn to speak the language of economics — that is, to
become familiar with, and easy about, some of the basic terms in
which economists tell about our economic condition.
For studying manufacturing it is important to know what
are factors of production. The main factors of production are
land, labour and capital which are needed in the productive
process.
What do economists mean by land? Land refers to all natural
resources which are used in the production of goods and services.
Such resources as arable land, forests, mineral and oil deposits,
and water resources come under this general classification.
What is capital? Capital refers to all manufactured aids to
production, that is, all tools, machinery, equipment and factory,
storage, transportation, and distribution facilities used in producing
goods and services and getting them to the ultimate consumer.
Labour is a broad term which economists use in referring to
all of the physical and mental talents of people who are involved
in the production process (with the exception of entrepreneurial
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INDUSTRY
ability which can be considered separately). Thus the services of
a logger, retail clerk, machinist, teacher, and nuclear physicist all
fall under the general heading of labour.
Finally, what is entrepreneurial ability? The entrepreneur takes
the initiative in combining the resources of land, capital, and
labour in the production of goods and services. He is the driving
force behind production. He makes basic business-policy decisions,
introduces on a commercial basis new products, new productive
technologies, or even new forms of business organization, and
takes all the risks, which are not only time, effort, and business
reputation, but his own invested funds and those of his associates
and stockholders.
The other two important terms are the gross national product
(GNP) and the gross domestic product (GDP). The difference
between the two terms is the following: GNP includes the total
value of goods and services produced in a country’s economy,
even if they are produced abroad, whereas GDP counts the total
value of production within the country, regardless of whether it
was produced by its citizens or companies or not. The actual
difference between the two measures is not large, usually less than
1 percent of difference, sometimes in favour of one measure,
sometimes the other. Because most countries want to know the
value of output within their own boundaries (where the money is
paid out), gross domestic product has become the main statistical
indicator adopted in the world.
The gross national product plays an important role in
macroeconomic studies. But what is macroeconomics?Itisthe
branch of economics which is concerned either with the economy
of a country as a whole or with the basic subdivisions or aggregates
which make up the economy. An aggregate is a collection of specific
economic units which are treated as if they were one unit.
Macroeconomics includes such problems as inflation, recession,
economic growth, and total level of unemployment, total output,
total income, total expenditure, general level of prices and so forth.
In short, it examines the forest, not the trees.
On the other hand, microeconomics is concerned with specific
economic units: an individual industry, firm or household and
concentrates upon the output or price of a specific product, the
number of workers employed by a single firm, the revenue or
income of a particular firm or household, the expenditures of a
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Unit One
given firm or family, and so forth. In other words, microeconomics
examines the trees, not the forest
to obscure затруднять понимание; factors of production факторы про
изводства; deposit месторождение; manufactured aids вспомогательные
средства производства; distribution facilities организационно-техниче
ские средства сбыта продукции; an ultimate consumer конечный по
требитель; entrepreneurial ability предпринимательский дар, предпри
нимательские способности; a logger лесоруб; a stockholder акционер;
aggregates совокупность экономических единиц; total output общий
объ¸м промышленного производства; total income совокупный доход;
total expenditure суммарные расходы; an economic unit хозяйственная
единица (напр., завод); household (семейное) хозяйство как экономи
ческая единица.
2
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Ex. 6. Prepare a general discussion and answer the following questions:
(a) what are the arguments for and against an industrial policy
in the USA? (b) What types of industry should be subjected to
industrial regulation? (c) What is good and what is bad in Japanese
industrial policy? (d) What can the government do to stimulate
American industry?
There has been a growing concern in recent years that the
United States’ industrial preeminence has been seriously eroded.
Its domestic markets have been flooded with foreign steel,
automobiles, motorcycles, cameras, watches, and stereo equipment,
suggesting that its competitive edge has been lost.
Noting apparent Japanese successes, many political, union
and business leaders feel that the country needs an industrial
policy to reverse its alleged industrial decline. It is argued that
the government should undertake a more active and direct role in
determining the structure and composition of American industry.
It should use low-interest loans, special tax treatment, research and
development subsidies to accelerate the development of high-tech
industries and to revitalize certain core manufacturing industries
such as steel. Conversely, it should hasten the movement of
resources out of declining “sunset” industries. Presumably the
net result will be that the American economy will enjoy a higher
average level of productivity and be more competitive in world
markets.
Opponents of industrial policy make a number of points
saying that the United States hasn’t deindustrialized yet and that
its manufacturing sector hasn’t experienced serious decline. They
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INDUSTRY
try to prove it by statistics. While the composition of manufacturing
output has changed, manufacturing in the aggregate accounts for
virtually the same percentage of national output now as it did
in the 1980s. Similarly, manufacturing’s share of the nation’s
expenditures on new plant and equipment is about the same as
in the 1980s. Employment in manufacturing has declined from
34% to 18% of total employment, but that ref lects the growth
of labour productivity rather than industrial demise. Output and
employment in manufacturing suffered in the early and mid-1980s,
but the primary cause was a very strong dollar which made
foreign imports relatively cheap and American exports relatively
expensive.
Advocates of an industrial policy typically cite Japan as
a model. Japanese industrial policy has had both successes and
failures. Some targeted industries, including semiconductor and
machine tools, are almost certainly stronger than they would have
been without government support and can be claimed as successes
for Japanese industrial policy. Other industries, such as shipbuilding
and steel, probably grow more quickly because of government
aid, but undoubtedly would have developed without any government
intervention. However, the Japanese government has also picked
losers. Aluminum smelting and petrochemicals were favoured
industries 20 years ago, but the public and private investments
have paid off very poorly and now their capacity is being reduced.
There are several examples of successful industries that did not
receive government assistance, including motorcycles and consumer
electronics.
Industrial policies in Europe have generally been failures.
Massive aid to aircraft, computer, and semiconductor industries
has simply not paid off.
While a proposal to create an industrial policy which subsidizes
sunrise industries and hastens the phasing out of sunset industries
sounds appealing, critics question the government’s ability to
identify future industrial “winners” and “losers”.
Those who are skeptical of industrial policy contend that
the government can best stimulate American industry by using
monetary and fiscal policy to create a favourable macroeconomic
environment (high employment, low inf lation, low interest rates)
and adjusting tax and regulatory systems to enhance incentives
3
for investment and technological advance
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Unit One
preeminence [pri!eminəns] превосходство, преимущество; to erode под
рывать, разрушать; competitive edge конкурентное преимущество;
a low-interest loan льготный за¸м; tax treatment налоговый режим;
research and development subsidies субсидии на научно-исследователь
ские и опытно-конструкторские работы; net result конечный резуль
тат; conv
отрасли промышленности; sunrise industries новые высокотехнологич
ные отрасли промышленности; in the aggregate в совокупности, в це
лом; demise [di!maiz] упадок, кончина; targeted industries целевые
отрасли промышленности; aluminum smelting выплавка алюминия;
petrochemicals нефтепродукты; to pay off окупаться, приносить выгоду;
to subsidize субсидировать; low interest rates низкие процентные став
êè; incentive стимул.
érsely наоборот; sunset industries технологически отсталые
Ex. 7. Read the following text and discuss the present pattern of
industry in Japan.
Japan’s primary industries — agriculture, forestry, and fishing —
are rapidly declining in importance relative to the rest of the
economy. In 1960 the primary sector still employed 32.6% of
the Japanese working population, but this figure has continued to
shrink as the economy has evolved and Japanese industry has
shifted into more advanced sectors. In 1994 its share of the work
force fell to 5.8%.
Japan’s secondary industries — steel, aluminum, petrochemicals,
cement, and other heavy industries — registered spectacular
growth by introducing the latest technologies and adopting mass
production methods. But Japan’s industrial evolution entered a
new phase as industries that consumed large quantities of energy
and resources were hit by rising costs and shrinking demand after
the oil crises of the 1970s. Since then these industries have been
making determined efforts to improve energy conservation, produce
higher-value-added goods and diversify.
The steel industry, for instance, grew steadily after World
War II, achieving remarkable advances in productivity, production
technology, and quality levels. Steel production reached the
100-million-ton level for the first time in 1973, making Japan the
world’s top steelmaking country. In 1982, however, production
fell back to below 100 million tons, and it has remained at about
this level since then. The entry of Asia’s newly industrialized
countries, especially the Republic of Korea, into the ranks of
major steel producers has exacerbated the structural difficulties
that confront the industry. Japanese steelmakers are continuing
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INDUSTRY
to take drastic steps to cut costs and are attempting to branch
out into other lines of business, such as new materials and
electronics.
The aluminum industry, a heavy consumer of electricity, has
had an even rougher ride. Until the oil crises, its smelting capacity
was 1.64 million tons a year. But the industry’s international
competitiveness vanished with the sudden rise in oil prices and
electricity costs. In 1985 it was slashed to 300,000 tons, marking
the effective withdrawal of the Japanese industry from smelting
activity. Since then domestic demand for aluminum has been
almost entirely met by imports, and the domestic industry has
limited itself to rolling and processing.
Petrochemicals, one of the leaders of Japanese manufacturing
during the rapid-growth era, has been beset by a structural recession
since the oil crises, and its capacity has shrunk by more than
30% since 1983. Recently, with the lowering of costs the industry
has been holding its own, but it cannot hope to recover its
former level of growth. Japanese petrochemical companies are now
restructuring themselves and moving into fine chemicals and
electronics-related fields.
Japanese coal production began shrinking in the early 1960s,
well before the oil crises. In 1960 Japan had more than 600 coal
mines and produced 55 million tons of coal a year, but the figure
dropped steadily as major energy users switched from coal to oil.
In 1985 only 11 major mines remained in operation, and annual
production was only 16 million tons. The strong yen and cheap
oil dealt the final blow to the coal industry, which today has
completely lost its ability to compete internationally.
Equally painful structural adjustments are affecting other areas
as well. Nonferrous metals, textiles, and other industries are
declining in relative importance as their international competitive
position weakens and world demand for their products falls.
Their places as leading industries are being taken by advanced
processing-and-assembly industries with high-value-added products.
One example is the electronics industry. In 1984 the total
value of consumer electronic goods (such as televisions, stereos,
and other audiovisual equipment) produced came to 4.7 trillion
yen; 10 years later it had fallen to 3.3 trillion yen. The main
factors behind this decline have been the increasing location of
manufacturing facilities offshore by many producers and the steady
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28
appreciation of the yen, which has led to a drop in exports and
a corresponding increase in imports. Production of videocassette
recorders, for example, fell from 2 trillion yen in 1984 to
499 billion yen in 1994, with exports showing a parallel decline,
from 1.6 trillion yen to 354 billion yen. In contrast, industrial
electronic equipment — computers (including personal computers),
peripherals, and telecommunications hardware — and electronic
components, such as semiconductors and integrated circuits, have
recorded double-digit growth nearly every year since the end of
the 1980s.
Production trends thus vary among the subdivisions of the
electronics industry. Behind the steady expansion of such products
as computers and integrated circuits lie important advances in
microelectonics technology, whose vast applications extend from
numerically controlled machine tools, industrial robots, automated
distribution systems, and other areas of factory automation to data
communications, personal computers, facsimiles, photocopiers, and
other facets of office automation and data processing.
Another high-value-added industry for which Japan is well
known is automobiles. Japan has 11 companies producing finished
motor vehicles, including two that make only trucks, but they are
merely the tip of an industrial pyramid composed of thousands
of companies that supply parts and perform subcontracted work.
In 1993 total automobile industry production reached 42 trillion
yen, 13.4% of the total for all manufacturers. The total number
of persons employed directly and indirectly by the industry —
from manufacturing to sales — is 7.2 million, or 11% of Japan’s
working population.
After the two oil crises, the position of manufacturing within
Japan’s economic structure declined, and the tertiary sector
advanced in its place. This trend continued as national income
rose, people gained more leisure time, and urbanization progressed.
These changes in the social environment gave impetus to the
growth of tertiary industries. Advances in computer and other
technologies, the proliferation of service industries, and the
increasing importance of information in the business world have
all contributed to the rapid expansion of data services. Software
development accounts for 60% of sales in this new-generation
industry, with databases and value-added networks among the
other services.
Unit One
INDUSTRY
to introduce внедрять (в производство); to shrink (shrank, shrunk)
уменьшаться, сокращаться; energy conservation сохранение энергии;
entry (into) вступление, присоединение (к); to exacerbate [ek!s
(difficulties, problems) углублять, обострять (трудности, проблемы);
to branch out into other lines of business заняться другими видами дея
тельности; to slash production capacity сокращать производственную
мощность; withdrawal (from activity) уход (из какой-либо деятельно
сти); rolling прокатка (металла); to beset отягощать; structural recession
экономический спад, вызванный структурной перестройкой; to hold
one’s own сохранять свои позиции; fine chemicals продукты промыш
ленности тонкой химии (парфюмерия, фармацевтические препараты
и др.); strong yen высокий курс иены; structural adjustment структур
ная перестройка; to affect (smth) влиять, воздействовать (на что-либо);
non-ferrous metals цветные металлы; advanced processing-and-assembly
industries высокотехнологичные отрасли промышленности по перера
ботке и сборке продукции; appreciation of the yen повышение курса
иены; peripherals [p
integrated circuit [!s
ное число; subdivision подотрасль; numerically controlled machine tool
станок с цифровым программным управлением; facsimile [f
факсимильная связь; facet [!f
нальный доход; distribution сбыт, торговля; to supply parts поставлять
детали; to perform subcontracted work выполнять субподрядную работу;
proliferation of service industries распространение сферы услуг.
ə!rifərəl] периферийное оборудование (компьютера);
ə:kit] интегральная микросхема; double-digit двузнач-
sit] вид, аспект; national income нацио-
səbeit]
k!simili]
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Ex. 8. Read the following texts and comment on the industrial
development of Iran,Turkey and South Korea. Use current material
and statistics.
Mining and manufacturing in Iran, dominated by petroleum
production, account for almost one-seventh of the GDP and employ
about one-eighth of the labour force. Iran’s petroleum industry,
nationalized in the 1950s, suffered extensive damage to wells,
refineries and export terminals with the outbreak of the Iran-Iraq
War in 1980. By the early 1990s petroleum production amounted
to only one-half of the amount produced in 1976. The state-owned
gathering and distributing system for natural gas from Iran’s
enormous reserves is one of the largest in the Middle East. Other
mineral resources are largely undeveloped.
Other major industrial products are textiles (particularly woven
carpets, a traditional export), processed foods, automobiles, electrical
machinery, iron and steel, and cement. Large investments in industry
in the 1970s made possible by petroleum earnings accelerated
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