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Task 2. Read the following text and debate on the problem of higher
education in developing countries.
Supplements
Across the developing world, higher education is coming in
from the cold. Gone are the days when it was purely a luxury for
the elite. Governments are rapidly expanding their higher-education
systems, with China probably witnessing the biggest expansion of
student numbers in history. They are trying to create centres of
excellence and throwing open the sector to private entrepreneurs.
The main reason for this f lurry of activity is the dramatic
growth in the supply of potential students. Secondary school
enrolment rates have grown rapidly across the developing world.
But there has also been a revolution in economic thinking. Not
so long ago the World bank pooh-poohed spending on higher
education as both economically inefficient and socially regressive.
Now many development economists are warming to higher
education, pointing to the demand for graduates — as demonstrated
by their wage premium — and to the positive effect of university-based
research on the economy.
Nobody doubts the difficulty of building decent universities in
the developing world. In most countries the legacy of colonialism
has been compounded by the legacy of anti-colonialism. Colonialism
meant that universities concentrated on producing a tiny group
of elite administrators, and anti-colonialism tightened their bonds
with government.
Public spending on universities in developing countries is highly
regressive. In Latin America the professional classes, who account
for 15% of the population, take up nearly half of all university
places. In Rwanda, 15% of the total education budget is spent on
the 0.2% students who attend universities. Most universities in
the developing world are also hopelessly badly managed.
But there are a few bright spots on the horizon. Some
universities in poorer countries have been doing world-class research.
The botany department of the university of Sao Paulo, for example,
was first to crack the genetic code of a bacterium which has
been laying waste to vineyards in southern California. This work
attracted global funding as well as attention from, among others,
America’s Department of Agriculture and the American Vineyard
Foundation.
A second bright spot is that good management can produce
striking improvements. Uganda’s Makerere University, which in
the late 1980s was on the verge of bankruptcy, has increased its
HIGHER EDUCATION
student numbers fivefold and is investing in its infrastructure.
It has introduced fees for 80% of its students, and now generates
a third of its revenue from a variety of commercial ventures such
as a bakery and an in-house consultancy.
A third cause for cheer is the proliferation of different kinds
of universities. A few years ago most universities in the developing
world were much the same: designed for the elite and dominated
by the state. Now there is more variety. The biggest change is
the emergence of a for-profit sector that concentrates on subjects
such as accounting and computer skills, and often pioneers
educational innovation.
What are the prospects that the good news will outweigh the
bad? To answer this question, it is worth looking more closely at
the two countries that are currently conducting the world’s biggest
experiments in the “massification” of higher education: India
and China.
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India’s higher-education system has plenty of inherited
handicaps. Some of them are left over from colonialism and
some from anti-colonialism; some arise from poor management
and political confusion. The government does not have the resources
to fund the expansion it wants, but cannot summon up the political
courage to start charging students realistic fees.
Undoubtedly, though, it is making advances. The number of
people attending universities almost doubled in the 1990s, from
4.9 million to 9.4 million. The price of this has been a decline in
overall quality. That said, India has two valuable things going for it.
One is its collection of elite institutions. For decades, India has
been pouring resources into the All India Institute of Medical
Sciences and the Indian Institutes of Technology (IIT). They
provide a highly intensive education, with all students and often
professors too living on campus. And they produce a stream of
highly educated people who help to set professional standards.
These elite institutions help to keep India plugged into the
global knowledge economy. They give their staff long sabbaticals
in western universities, and that about a third of them spend
time in America every summer. The IIT receives sponsorship for
research from multinationals such as Sun Microsystems, Cisco,
Volvo, and Ford. Granted, the elite institutions produce many
people who get brain-drained away, but they also keep many bright
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people from emigrating, and may even attract émigrés back if
India’s economy keeps booming. It is accepted wisdom in India
that the brightest students go to the IIT and the second-best to
American universities.
India’s other big advantage is a more recent development:
a booming private sector. Though nearly 100 private universities
were closed because of quality concerns, still, the best private
colleges are doing admirable work, responding to unmet demand
for technical and managerial education, often in highly creative
ways, correcting India’s bias towards theoretical education, and
encouraging entrepreneurs to pour millions into a sector that has
traditionally been starved of funds.
A growing band of successful private companies are pioneering
the democratisation of technical education. NIIT, a computer-training
company, has 40 wholly owned centres and more than 1,000
franchised operations, and is expanding to America and Britain.
It has also established a research-and-development department to
discover the most effective teaching methods. One of its cleverest
idea was to give illiterate children free access to computers in
order to see how easily they could master them. It has also
established links with Citibank to enable students to take out
loans to pay fees.
Supplements
***
In higher education China is visibly pulling ahead of India.
The Chinese are engaged in the biggest university expansion in
history. In the 1980s, only 2—3% of school-leavers went to
university. In 2003, the figure was 17%. The watershed year was
1999, when the number of students enrolled jumped by almost
half. The expansion at the doctoral level is even faster than for
undergraduates: in 1999—2003, nearly 12 times as many doctorates
were awarded as in 1982—89. And there is more to come: the
number of new doctoral students jumped from 14,500 in 1998
to 48,700 in 2003.
The Chinese are determined to create a super-league of
universities to rival the best in the world. The central government
is investing heavily in chosen universities, such as Peking, Tsinghua
and Fudan, offering higher salaries and more research funding.
The state governments are doing likewise. It is no accident that the
most widely used annual ranking of the world’s research universities,
the Shanghai index, is produced by a Chinese university.
HIGHER EDUCATION
What lies behind all this is a gigantic exercise in technology
transfer. The Chinese are trying to recreate the best western
universities at home in order to compete in more sophisticated
industries. They have stocked up with foreign PhDs: in some
departments of the university of Peking, a third of the faculty
members have American doctorates. They are using joint ventures
with foreign universities in much the same way as Chinese
companies use joint ventures with foreign companies.
The Chinese have no qualms about using market mechanisms
to achieve this technology transfer. Tuition charges now make
up 26% of the earnings of public universities, nearly twice the
level in 1998; many professors are paid according to the number
of students they attract; and China is creating a parallel system
of private universities alongside the public ones. For example,
the University of Peking has more applicants than places, so
it has created a parallel university that charges higher fees and
accepts slightly less able students. Links between universities and
industry are commonplace. The majority of doctorates earned in
China between 1992 and 2003 were in practical subjects, which
attract the brightest students: engineering (38% of the total),
natural sciences (22%) and medicine (15%).
But will China achieve its academic ambitions? The trouble
is that investment will not do the trick without broader cultural
changes. Academic corruption is rife. The powerful academies
that distribute much of the research funding are prey to both
political favouritism and lobbying. Plagiarism is commonplace.
Many academics use a good part of their research funding for
personal rather than academic ends
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flurry порыв; to pooh-pooh [pu:!pu:] пренебрегать; handicap помеха, пре
пятствие; sabbatical годичный отпуск (для научной работы);
[!emigrei] эмигрант; qualms [kwɔ:mz] pl сомнения, колебания; rife рас
простран¸нный, обычный; plagiarism [!pleid
Task 3. Translate the following text into Russian in writing, compare
your translation with the one given below and test your knowledge
of the terms by backtranslation.
jərizm] плагиат.
émigré
In a brain-based world, we have to change our definition of
education and training. We used to believe in taking a huge
overdose of education until the age of 25. The theory was that
this massive infusion of education would keep us high and f lying
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for the next 40 years or so, and after that no one would need
us any more.
This approach to learning means that for the majority of
people’s lives learning wasn’t even on their agenda. It was
generic and wide-ranging rather than personalized and targeted.
It overlooked the fact that education is not about filling people’s
heads with facts. It is emotion and soul. It is personal.
In a world where competitive advantages can be found in
soft-where, education needs to be continuous and lifelong.
Education is a competitive weapon — for individuals as well as
firms. The workplace has to become a campus. If you want to
attract and retain the best people, you will have to train them.
Most people may have seven jobs before their career is over. What
they look for in an employer is a continuous investment in their
career. Sims’ company spends 7 percent of sales on training —
18 times more than the average US firm.
The reality is that employee education isn’t growing 100 percent
faster than academia, but 100 times or 10,000 percent faster.
Companies such as Apple, SiliconGraphics, and Intel have already
institutionalized sabbaticals for their top employees. You are
allowed to retreat for as long as one year to further your skills.
Already companies are setting up their own “universities”
to train tomorrow’s executives. There are now 1200 corporate
universities worldwide covering virtually every industry. On the
surface these are not institutions which the denizens of Harvard
are likely to lose sleep over. McDonalds’ Hamburger University
on Oak Brook, Illinois lacks academic gravitas. But, over 35 years
it has produced more than 50,000 graduates and has 30 resident
professors delivering programs in 22 languages.
Skeptics may shake their heads at the very idea of Hamburger
University or Disney University, but the rate at which corporate
universities are opening suggests that major corporations take them
very seriously. Perhaps the best-known corporate university is
that run by Motorola. The Motorola University, “an instrument of
renewal” according to the company, supplies 550,000 student days
a year and costs $170 million. Every single Motorola employee —
and there are 139,000 — is expected to receive at least 40 hours
of training per year. The company has also developed its own
international MBA program. Motorola calculates that every dollar
invested in training reaps $33. Corporate universities are not
solely an US phenomenon. In 1998, British Aerospace unveiled
HIGHER EDUCATION
plans to create its own virtual university, called the British
Aerospace Virtual University, in partnership with outside academic
institutions. In the next decade, it pledged to invest more than
‡1.5 billion in building the company’s “knowledge base”.
Changing educational needs will produce changing educational
institutions. “Universities won’t survive. The future is outside
the traditional campus, outside the traditional classroom. Distance
learning is coming on fast”, say some chief executives. While
futurists predict “the school house of the future may be neither
school nor house”.
Technology is revolutionizing education. Traditional institutions,
such as universities and business schools, have done nothing while
upstarts have stolen a march. Soon even bigger corporations
will become involved in education. When media group, Pearson
bought Simon & Schutster’s education, reference and business and
professional publishing activities for $3.6 billion in 1998, education
was the top of its agenda. “Education is one of the great growth
industries of our time”, say chief-executives. Companies such as
Microsoft, Disney, and News Corporation are also eyeing the
opportunities.
Amid this welcome and overdue maelstrom ([!meilstroum])
of activity, the nature of education has fundamentally changed
and will continue to do so. Learning is now increasingly regarded
as lifelong — though exactly what this means or entails is often
a little vague — and it is also regarded as personal.
As a lot of knowledge is tacit and difficult to communicate,
learning can by no means be restricted to the “classroom”. We
must also learn on the job. We have to turn the workplace into a
gas station for our brains, not only a racetrack. Development and
education is as much about improving the processes in which we
work and getting to know the people around us as it is about reading
yet another book or listening to another lecture. Development is
about mentoring, training disciples and coaching. It is the job of
leaders to create new leaders. Leadership is about contaminating
and being contaminated with knowledge. The distinction between
learning, working and living is gone — it is one and the same
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***
В мире, где правят знания, следует изменить само опре
деление образования и профессиональной подготовки. Мы
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привыкли верить, что надо принять сверхдозу знаний до
25 лет. Эта вера базируется на предположении, что, «коль
нувшись» в раннем возрасте, мы сможем следующие 40 лет
прожить под этим образовательным «кайфом», а после мы
уже никому не будем нужны.
Такой подход означает, что большинство людей даже не
предполагает, что можно учиться в течение всей жизни. Об
разование было общим и одинаковым для всех, а не инди
видуальным и узкоспециализированным. Упускали тот факт,
что образование — это не заполнение голов голыми факта
ми. Образование — это эмоции и душа. Образование должно
быть персональным.
В мире, где поиск конкурентного преимущества смеща
ется в сферу нематериальную, где вс¸ решают знания, об
разование должно стать непрерывным и продолжаться всю
жизнь. Образование — это оружие в конкурентной борьбе
как для индивидуумов, так и для компаний. Рабочее место
должно стать аудиторией. Если вы хотите привлечь и удержать лучших людей, вы должны предоставить им возможность учиться. У большинства людей в течение их карьеры
может быть до семи мест трудоустройства. То, что они
ищут, — это работа, которая является инвестицией в их
карьерный и профессиональный рост. Компания Симса
тратит 70% от оборота на обучение, и это в 18 раз больше,
чем в средней американской компании.
Реальность такова, что знания у сотрудников компании
накапливаются со скоростью, которая не на 100%, а в
100 раз, или на 10 000%, превосходит скорость накопле
ния знаний научными учреждениями. Такие компании, как
Apple, SiliconGraphics и Intel, уже сделали нормой длительные
отпуска для своих сотрудников высшего звена. Вы можете
уйти в отпуск на год для повышения своей квалификации.
Компании создают свои собственные «университеты» под
готовки будущих руководителей. Сегодня во вс¸м мире су
ществует около 1200 университетов, принадлежащих различ
ным компаниям, практически во всех отраслях. Hа первый
взгляд кажется, что эти учреждения не станут новыми Гарвар
дами и едва ли выстоят в конкурентной борьбе. McDonald’s
Hamburger University в городе Оак Брук, штат Иллинойс,
не выглядит академически привлекательным. Hо за 35 лет
своего существования он выпустил более 50 000 студентов
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HIGHER EDUCATION
и имеет 30 постоянно работающих профессоров, которые
читают лекции на 22 языках.
Скептики могут пожать плечами по поводу даже самой
идеи Hamburger University или Disney University, но скорость,
с которой появляются новые корпоративные университеты,
показывает, что корпорации настроены очень серь¸зно. Воз
можно, самым известным является корпоративный универ
ситет, созданный компанией Motorola. Motorola Universi
ty — «инструмент обновления», согласно заявлению самой
компании, — выда¸т 550 000 студенто-дней в год и стоит
$170 миллионов. Каждый сотрудник Motorola, а их всего
139 000, должен учиться не менее 40 часов в год. Компания
также разработала собственную программу МBA. Motorola
подсчитала, что каждый доллар, вложенный в образование,
приносит $33 прибыли.
Корпоративные университеты — это не чисто американское изобретение. В 1988 году British Aerospace объявила
о сво¸м плане создать совместно с другими учебными заведениями собственный виртуальный университет, который
будет называться British Aerospace Virtual University. В течение следующего десятилетия она собирается вложить в него более ‡1,5 млрд с целью создания корпоративной «базы
данных».
Перемены в требованиях к образованию приводят к переменам в образовательных учреждениях. «Университетам
не выжить. Будущее за границей университетских городков,
за границей аудиторий. Заочные курсы набирают оборо
ты» — говорят некоторые директора компаний. В то же
время футуристы предсказывают: «Школьное здание в бу
дущем — это не здание, да и не школа».
Технологии революционизируют образование. Традици
онные учебные институты, такие, как университеты и биз
нес-школы, ничего не сделали, когда новички перехватили
инициативу. Скоро даже крупнейшие корпорации могут
оказаться вовлеч¸нными в развитие образовательных ин
ститутов. Когда в 1998 году медиагруппа Pearson купила
у Simon & Schuster их образовательный бизнес вместе со
справочными, бизнес- и профессиональными изданиями за
$3,6 млрд, она считала своим главным приобретением имен
но образовательный бизнес. «Образование — это одна из
самых быстрорастущих отраслей нашего времени», — гово
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рят директора компаний. Такие компании, как Microsoft,
Disney и New Corporation, тоже присматриваются к новым
возможностям в этой отрасли.
С одной стороны, существует огромный интерес к об
разованию, и эту область захватывает волна ураганной ак
тивности, с другой стороны, сама природа образования
претерпела серь¸зные изменения и продолжает меняться.
Обучение вс¸ чаще и чаще воспринимается как процесс,
который длится всю жизнь, хотя не всегда понятно, что же
он в себя включает. Одновременно набирает силу индиви
дуализация собственного образования.
Поскольку многие виды знания трудно сформулировать
и передать словами, образование не может быть ограни
чено пределами класса или аудитории. Hам необходимо
учиться в «процессе», прямо на рабочем месте. Рабочее
место должно превратиться в заправочную станцию для
наших мозгов, а не скоростную магистраль, остановка на
которой запрещена. Образование и собственное развитие —
это не только чтение «очередной книги» и прослушивание «очередной лекции», но и улучшение собственного
производственного процесса, и знакомство с людьми, которые работают рядом. Интеллектуальное развитие — это
наставничество и передача знаний ученикам. Это задача лидеров — создавать новых лидеров. Лидеры должны быть
завалены знаниями и заваливать ими всех остальных. Hет
больше разницы между уч¸бой, работой и жизнью. Это
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один неразрывный процесс
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Notes (Original Sources)
Industry
1
Heilbroner R. The Making of Economic Society. New Jersey, 1993, p. 69;
Economics Explained. New York, 1994, p. 21.
2
McConnell C.R., Brue S.L. Microeconomics. N.Y., 1990, p. 5.
3
McConnell C.R., Brue S.L. Op. cit., p. 380.
4
The Economist. May 22nd, 2004, p. 79.
5
The Economist. December 3rd, 2005, p. 36.
6
The Economist. December 3rd, 2005, p. 61.
7
The Economist. November 26th, 2005, p. 73.
8
The Economist. October 18th, 1997, p. 77.
Agriculture
1
Global Agriculture 2020. Roundtable Discussion, Norwich, J. Innes Centre.
2
Heilbroner R. Op. cit., pp. 19, 28, 55.
3
Heilbroner R. Op. cit., pp. 139, 151.
4
Indian Economy Today and Tomorrow. January, 1999, pp. 31, 35.
5
The Economist. December 3rd, 2005, p. 52.
6
Mitchell P.M. Concern Grows over G.M. Food. The Rowett Research Institute,
Scotland, 1998.
7
Sturcke J. and Agencies. Meat from Cloned Cows “is safe”. U.K., 2005.
8
The Sciences. 1997. Jan.—February, 1997, p. 15.
Trade and Communications
1
The Economist. November 8th, 1997, p. 99; 1997. Novermber 15th, 1997, p. 89;
McConnel C.R., Brue S.L. Op. cit., p. 500.
2
McConnel C.R., Brue S.L. Op. cit., pp. 476—482.
3
The Economist. November 8th, 1997, p. 99.
4
The New York Times. February 5, 1995.
5
The Economist. The World in 2002, p. 52.
6
The Economist. January 17th, 2004, pp. 13,14 (A survey of sub-Saharan Africa).
7
The Economist. The World in 2002, p. 108.
8
The Economist. December 3rd, 2005, p. 59.
9
Nordström K., Ridderstråle J. Funky Business. London, 2000, pp. 76—78.
10
The Economist. November 8th, 1997, p. 99.
Transport and Investment
1
Stevenson D.K. American Life and Institutions. Washington, 1998, pp. 78, 109;
The Economist. November 15th, 1997, p. 89; The Economist. The World in
2002, p. 100.
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