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131. Singh, M., etal. (n.d.). Medicinal use of garlic (Allium sativum L.) (p.44). isns.
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Chapter 19
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Fennel
SaraZafar, MuhammadKamranKhan, ShaguftaPerveen,
MuhammadIqbal, andArwaA.AL-Huqail
19.1 Introduction
The herb fennel has been used to improve both physical and mental health [1]. The
perennial plant fennel, or Foeniculum vulgare, is a member of the Apiaceae (carrot
family) and is grown for its tasty leaves, stems, and seeds. Its common name is fennel. Most important manufacturing nations of fennel are Argentina, India, Syria,
Bulgaria, Egypt, Indonesia, China and Pakistan.
The carrot family’s fennel is a oral plant. It’s a hardy enduring yellow blossoms
and uffy leaves on a herb. The Mediterranean beaches are home to it, although it
has distributed widely over the globe particularly on arid soils close to the seashore
and along riversides [2].
Kingdom Plantae
Subkingdom Tracheobionta (Vascular plants)
Super division Spermatophyta (Seed plants)
Division Magnoliophyta (Flowering plant)
Class Mangoliopsida (Dicotyledons)
Order Apiales
Family Apiaceae (carrot family)
Genus Foeniculum
Species Foeniculum vulgare L.
S. Zafar (*) · M. K. Khan · S. Perveen · M. Iqbal
Department of Botany, Government College University, Faisalabad, Pakistan
e-mail: sarazafar@gcuf.edu.pk
A. A. AL-Huqail
Department of Biology, College of Science, Princess Nourah bint Abdulrahman University,
Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023
M. Zia-Ul-Haq etal. (eds.), Essentials of Medicinal and Aromatic Crops,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-35403-8_19
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This section begins with an explanation and categorization of Foeniculum vulgare L., a plant that is cultivated primarily as a herb or for its fruits and regarded for
its enjoyable scent, nutritious value, and therapeutic benet. The fragrance compounds found in essential oils from herbs and seeds are 50–60% anethole and
15–20% fenchone as the main ingredients of fruit volatile oil. There are numerous
treated items prepared from fennel garden-fresh herb and fruits that are in high
demand on the global market place. The nutritional and efcient qualities of fennel
include its therapeutic uses including antimicrobial, antiatulent, amphetamine,
atus-relieving, and expectorant as well as adulteration, harmfulness, and allergenicity. The excellence standards for various fennel manufactured goods, such as
entire seed, minced seed, oleoresins and volatile oil are provided.
Fennel has been utilized for medical and cooking ideas for centuries. The whole
plant has therapeutic use; its expanded ground is utilized as a vegetable; its leaves
are utilized in cooking; and Its seeds are used to make spices and to extract essential
oils. The blooms and leaves are often used to make brown and yellow colors.
S. Zafar etal.
19.2 History
Since ancient times, fennel has been one of the most consumed herbs worldwide.
The name Marathon, which means “place of fennel,” is where the Athenians and
Persians fought, and from where the term “fennel“is derived. In recognition of their
victory, the Athenians waved fennel stalks. They honored Pheidippides with fennel
when he sprinted from Marathon to Athens to announce a military victory against
the Persians. Fennel became a winning symbol after this incident. However, there is
no evidence to suggest that fennel was ever grown there. Since mariano, which
means “to become thin,” is a Greek word, the plant was given the name Marathron.
Now that fennel is widely recognized as a potent appetite suppressor and help in
weight loss [1].
Fennel was branded as madhurika in early Sanskrit literature, thus it is believed
that farming began in India circa 2000BC.It was associated with success among
the ancient Greeks, and the war of Marathon (490BC) was selected after it because
it took place in a eld of fennel [3]. To the Romans, fennel was also a symbol of
achievement, and fennel leaves were utilized to honor winners in competitions.
One of the nine plants mentioned in the tenth-century description of the occult
Nine Herbs Charm of Anglo-Saxon is fennel and it is one of the nine plants named
in the ancient Anglo-Saxon charm known as the “Nine Herbs”. Fennel was considered a regal spice in England during the thirteenth century, and it was offered to
monarchs with fruit, bread, and delicacies like pickled sh spiced with the seed
of fennel.
Fennel is an indigenous of southern Europe and the Mediterranean region [4],
but it has been naturalized in several areas, involving northern Europe, the US
Cyprus, southern Canada, and the Far East, parts of Asia and Australia. Pioneered to
North America by Spanish evangelists for use in pharmaceutical gardens, it is
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currently seen in California as wild anise (and is frequently misbranded as anise in
American superstores), where it may be noticed increasing around San Francisco
and along the Pacic coast. The herb was also brought to the New England societies
by English immigrants, where it turns into a component of their kitchen vegetable
garden. It is now designated a wild plant in the United States, as well as in other
countries [5].
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19.3 Fennel Classication
The genus Foeniculum (fennel) is a representative of the Apiaceae family and the
Apiales order.
(i) F. vulgare Mill. var. piperitum (Ucria) Cout. (bitter fennel),
(ii) F. vulgare Mill. var. dulce DC Batt. et Trab. (sweet fennel), and
(iii) F. vulgare Mill. var. azoricum Thell. (Florence fennel, or nocchio)
are the three principal types [6]. Sour Unlike Florence fennel, which is grown for
its fruits, vital oil, leaves (which are used in cooking), and a wider leaf base, fennel is grown for its fruits and vital oil (consumed as a vegetable). For its broadened leaf base, fruits, and valuable oil produced from the fruits, sugary fennel is
planted. Varieties of fennel are categorized as perennial or biennial fragrant herbs
[7], although annual, biennial, and perennial kinds are described by other writers.
Foeniculum is a cross-pollinated yield with the 2n=22 somatic chromosomes.
19.4 Chemical Composition
Fennel‘s chemical makeup changes depending on morphotype, resource, climate,
and reaping phase. Fennel seeds contain 8.80g water, 15.80g protein, 14.90g fat,
36.60g carbohydrate, 15.70g ber, and 8.20g ash per 100g edible quantity (comprising 1.20g Ca, 19mg Fe, 1.70gK, 385mgMg, 88mg Na, 487mg P and 28mg
Zn). Vitamin A (135IU), niacin (6mg), thiamine (0.41mg), and riboavin (0.35mg)
are all present in every 100g, with an energy amount of around 1440kJ. Mucilage,
starch sugars, essential oil, tannin and stable oil (petroselenic, oleic, linoleic, and
palmitic acids) are the primary elements of the xed oil [8] are found in the seeds.
Vitamin content varies in terms of type and quantity: folates, 270mg/kg; vitamin
B3, 6.40mg/kg; vitamin C, 8.70–340mg/kg. calcium (5.6–363mg/kg), Potassium
(4.24–5.85g/kg) is the mainly common mineral in fennel, with phosphorus (500mg/
kg, magnesium (8.2–389 mg/kg), and sodium (7.70–512 mg/kg) being the least
abundant minerals [9].
Anethole (50–60%) and fenchone (15–20%) are the two main elements of the
vital oil extracted. The primary elements of the necessary oil extracted are
(E)-anethole, (Z)-anethole, and α-thujone [10, 11]. Fennel essential oil contains 20
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S. Zafar etal.
compounds, 18 of which account for 96.04% of the total indispensable oil, with
anethole (68%), fenchone (3.70%), limonene (11%), and some others being the
most prominent. Trans-anethole (60–65%, but up to 90%) is the most abundant
ingredient in fennel seed oil.
There are also trace amounts of α-pinene, camphene,δ-α-phellandrene, and
ρ-hydroxy phenyl acetone. Petroselenic, methyl chavicol oleic,, and palmitic acids,
linoleic are the primary elements of the predetermined oil [12]. The unstable oil
substance of dried up fennel seeds is 0.6–6%.
Table 19.1 shows the chemical makeup of sugary and sour fennel oil. In adding
up to the listing of other components given, Anethole is the primary component
of the essential oils obtained from the seeds and leaves of F. vulgare, accounting
for 58.5% of the seed oil and 51.1% of the leaf oil, as determined by limonene
(19.6% in seed oil and 22% in leaf oil) [13]. When the fruits (seeds) are fully
grown, the seeds contain up to 95% of the essential oil. Hydro distillation yields
1.5–35.0%, with hydro distilling fresh or slightly wilted foliage right before owering yielding the most amount of herbal essential oil [14].
Fennel seeds include 0.79% essential oil, 5.82% xed oil, and 1.17mg/g dried
upmass of total phenolic compounds [16]. α-pinene (0.36%), δ-limonene
(0.071%), 1,8-cineole (5.08%), anethone (86.12%), fenchone (4.12%), and
estragole (methyl chavicol) are the most important components of essential oil.
However, [2] the primary ingredients are trans-anethole (60–70%), methyl chavicol (estragole) (3–5%) fenchone (13–33%), α-pinene, camphene, ρ-cymene, liomonene myrcene, α-and β-phellandrene, γ-terpinene, terpineol,cis-ocimene and
γ-fenchone. Fennel seeds’ dry distillation residue contains 15–22% protein and
13–18% fat, making it acceptable for use as standard food [17].
Table 19.1 Comparison of
Sweet and Bitter fennel oil
Component Sweet fennel oil (%) Bitter fennel oil (%)
Limonene 28.92 N/A
Fenchone 2.67 2.84
Fenchol 3.18 N/A
Estragole 2.53 8.31
Anethole 52.03 47.97
α-Pinene 4.03 18.10
α-Phellandrene N/A 12.98
Source: [15]
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19.4.1 Fennel Seed Oil Compounds (Table19.2)
Table 19.2 The essential oil composition of the Bangladesh-grown Foeniculum vulgare Mill
[13, 18]
Seed and leafoil components Percentage Seedand leaf oil components Percentage
β-Thuzaplicinin leaf oil 4.82 p-Anisic anhydridein leaf oil 0.21
β-Pinenein leaf oil 0.14
β-Phallandrenein leaf oil 0.05 N-amyl isovaleratein leaf oil 0.01
β-Ocemenein leaf oil 0.27 Myristicinin leaf oil 0.09
β-Myrcenein leaf oil 0.63 Methylisoeugenolin leaf oil 0.13
β-Bisabolenein leaf oil 0.03 Methyleugenolin leaf oil 0.07
α-Curcumenein leaf oil 0.05 Limonene-1,2-epoxidein
Trans-p-2,8-Menthadien-1-olin leaf oil 0.15 Limonenein leaf oil 22.9
Trans-Carvyl propionatein leaf oil 0.41 Fenchyl acetatein leaf oil 5.35
Trans-Carvyl acetatein leaf oil 0.25 Fenchonein leaf oil 1.66
Plinol Din leaf oil 0.11 Cis-Verbenolin leaf oil 0.18
Camphorin leaf oil 0.04 Terpinolenein seed oil 0.13
Camphenein leaf oil 0.07 Sabinenein seed oil 0.70
Apiolin leaf oil 0.63 Ocimenein seed oil 0.09
Anisaldehydein leaf oil 7.55 Limonenein seed oil 19.6
Anetholein leaf oil 51.1 l-Fenchonein seed oil 7.73
Allyl-3-methoxybenzoatein leaf oil 0.06 Isopinocampheolin seed oil 0.11
4-Hexen-1-ol, acetatein leaf oil 0.22 Germacrenein seed oil 0.47
3-Methoxycinamaldehydein leaf oil 0.14 Fenchyl acetatein seed oil 1.20
2-Methoxybenzeneethanolin leaf oil 0.10 Eugenolin seed oil 0.09
γ-Terpinenein leaf oil 0.06
β-Thujaplicinein seed oil 0.05 Cis-Sabinenehydratein seed
β-Pinenein seed oil 0.23 Caryophyllenein seed oil 0.11
β-Pinenein seed oil 1.81 Camphorin seed oil 0.63
β-Camphorin seed oil 0.17 Camphenein seed oil 0.08
β-Bisabolenein seed oil 0.09 Apiolin seed oil 0.27
α-Pinene oxidein seed oil 0.19 Anisaldehydein seed oil 0.73
α-Phallandrenein seed oil 0.31 Anetholein seed oil 58.5
Trans-Verbenolin seed oil 0.16 4-Terpinolenein seed oil 0.28
Trans-p-Mentha-2,8-dienol (S)-2-
methyl-5-1-methylin seed oil
Trans-limonene oxidein seed oil 0.84 γ-Terpinenein seed oil 1.10
0.30 3-Methoxycinamaldehydein
Octahydro-1- benzothipenein
leaf oil
leaf oil
Ethenyl)-2cyclohexeneonein seed oil
oil
seed oil
0.08
0.10
1.20
0.09
0.27
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S. Zafar etal.
19.5 International Trade, Production
andPost-harvest Processing
Numerous nations, including Romania, Russia, Germany, Italy, France, Argentina,
and the United States, cultivate fennel extensively. Egypt, Syria, Morocco, Denmark,
Bulgaria, China, and Japan are among the countries that grow it. Gujarat, Rajasthan,
and Uttar Pradesh are the major fennel-producing states in India, whereas Bihar,
Karnataka, Maharashtra, Punjab, Tamil Nadu, and Jammu & Kashmir grow it on a
limited scale. In India, 114,278 tons of fennel seed were manufactured on 74,150
hectares in 2008–2009, while 7250 tons of fennel seed were shipped in 2011 [19].
Anethole is produced in 1000 tons per year around the world, with China and
Vietnam being the primary manufacturers. Due of the challenges involved with
anise, fennel is the predominant resource of anethole in Brazil [20].
19.5.1 Cultivation andOrganic Planting
Fennel is a cool period yield that produces more seeds when the weather is dry and
chilly. The ideal temperature for growth is 15–20°C, whereas high temperatures
cause premature owering and limited seed output. During the blossoming stage,
the crop is vulnerable to frost damage. Fennel can be cultivated as a mixed or intercrop because it is a long-term crop with moderate initial growth. The varieties chosen must be appropriate to the local soil and climatic environments, and if possible,
have pest and disease endurance. A nursery can be used to raise seedlings before
they are put outdoors, or seeds can be sown straight in the ground. In a nursery, it
takes roughly 2.5kg of seed to grow adequate seedlings for 1ha, whereas it takes
8–10kg of seed to spread directly over the same area as a main season crop. Because
of the kind and fertility of the soil, nutritional needs of plants differ from location to
county. To diminish the prevalence of diseases and pests, in addition to the initial
choice of resistant varieties and the application of biocontrol strategies, In an organic
farming system, crop management techniques used at planting time, a healthy diet,
crop rotation, and green manuring should be promoted as plant protection measures
and other practices.
Fennel is a perennial plant that may be grown everywhere. It thrives in subtropical and temperate climates. Fennel is typically grown as both a Kharif and a Rabi
crop. It needs a cool, dry atmosphere for fennel. To promote germination, the seed
should be soaked and pre-sprouted for a number of days. Frost can damage fennel
crops. Indian fennel has a sweet anise avor, is brownish, typically smaller,
straighter, and not nearly as rounded at the ends. After 12 to 18days, seeds begin to
germinate. They are harvested after 100days and have a two-year shelf life. Every
three to four years, the plants should be replanted to maintain their health [1].
Organic fennel is in high demand, and several spice rms sale certied organic
fennel online. Fennel seeds grown in India are primarily from arid and partial-arid
locations and are therefore organic by default because they are grown with low or
no chemical inputs. In the market, such product is referred to be “near organic” and
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sold as such [21]. have dened the both broad and specialized standards for organic
seed spice manufacturing, together with fennel. The major markets for organic
spices, including fennel, are Europe, the United States, Canada, and Japan, the two
new emerging markets represented by Australia and New Zealand. Spices grown
organically will be in strong demand in the future.
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19.5.2 Soil Condition
Black cotton soils and well-drained loamy soil are both good for growing fennel.
Rain during fennel maturity ruins the color and lowers the quality. The fennel crop
requires constant exposure to the sun. The ideal temperature range for seed germination is 60–90°F.
19.6 Traditional Medicine
19.6.1 Leaves
(a) The paste made from the leaves is used to treat kidney problems, liver pain, and
mouth ulcers.
(b) The leaves of the Foeniculum vulgare tree are used as a remedy of diabetes [22].
19.6.2 Bark
(a) Fever is cured from the bark.
(b) Blood-related disorders can be treated with tree bark [23].
19.6.3 Root
(a) Urinary tract infections and renal calculi are treated with root, glycosuria,
too [24].
(b) Fever, colic, and muscle symptoms are treated with root.
19.6.4 Flowers
(a) Bloating, atulence, and spasmodic gastrointestinal symptoms are caused by
the oral paste of Foeniculum vulgare. It is additionally applied to treat upper
respiratory catarrh.
(b) Perfumes contain its owers [22].
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