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Файл:Ординатура / Хирургия / Библиотека им академика М.И. Перельмана / Книга_5327_Библиотеки_им_академика_М_И_Перельмана
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13.17.6 Damping Off
Causative agent of this disease is Pythium sp. The fungus attacks at the seedling
stage. Symptoms of disease appear in the form of necrotic spots and rings causing
collapse of the seedlings. Soil is sterilized with Formalin (2%). Beside this seed is
treated with Dithane [44].
13.17.7 Thrips
It is caused by Thrips tabaci. This pest results in distorted and discolored plant tissue. Thrips use rapidly growing tissues for their nourishment. Resultantly, the leaves
become distorted. Leaves roll and fall off. Color break is seen in the petals due to
feeding by thrips before opening of buds. Most species of wild marigold are resistant to the pest however, some are affected by pests. For example, cultivated forms
of Tagetes erecta L. has some serious pests (Red spider mite and root knot nema-
tode) whereas, at the same site these pests have not been found on T. minuta L
[11, 23].
Black Foot Disease This disease was rst reported in 2011in Fars province of
Iran. The disease manifests itself in form of yellowing, root and foot rot, drying of
leaves, and ultimately the death of plant. In a research conducted to nd the causative agent of this disease. For this purpose the infected plants were collected and
transferred to laboratory. The samples were then disinfected by using 0.5% NaClO
solution, and cultured on Potato Dextrose Agar (PDA). The pH of medium was
maintained at 4.5 with 0.5% lactic acid. Morphological studies revealed the pathogen to be Cylindrocarpon destructans. For further conrmation DNA was extracted
from the sample and studied using PCR. Results showed 100% similarity index
with Cylindrocarpon destructans. Further pathogenicity tests were carried out. The
pathogenicity tests were done with a suspension of 1×106 conidia per ml homogenized in sterile water. The symptoms on infected plants were similar to that was
observed previously.
13.18 Nutrient Deciency Symptoms inWild Marigold
The deciency of primary and secondary nutrients results in different symptoms
that are discussed below.
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13.18.1 Nitrogen Deciency
As the result of nitrogen deciency, the older leaves become chlorotic. They may
show purple to red discoloration [21].
13.18.2 Phosphorous Deciency
Stunted growth and deep green foliage are the symptoms of this deciency. Some
plants may show purple coloration. Chlorosis followed by necrosis takes place in
older leaves. Abnormal elongation of roots take place. Leaves lose their dark green
color and the underside of leaves appears red and yellow in color. These symptoms
spread across the leaf with older leaves falling off [18].
13.18.3 Magnesium Deciency
Chlorosis among the veins takes place. In many leaves before chlorosis red and
purple pigmentation starts appearing. Chlorosis starts from the tip and spreads
across the leaf in a V-shape formation. After chlorosis necrosis takes place.
13.18.4 Sulfur Deciency
This deciency results in change in size and shape of owers, turning to pale yellow
in color.
13.18.5 Iron Deciency
It results in white appearance of overall leaf blade.
13.18.6 Boron Deciency
It has major impact on owers. The owers are incomplete, have fewer number of
petals, the petals suddenly wilts, notches appearing in ower stems indicating
missing tissues. It results in death of roots. Chlorosis of young leaves also takes
place (Table13.3).
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Table 13.3
Nutrients Deciency symptoms
Nitrogen Chlorosis
Phosphorous Stunted growth, Discoloration, Abnormal elongation of
Magnesium Chlorosis followed by necrosis
Sulfur Impacts size and color of owers
Iron Whitish appearance of leaf blade
Boron Fewer number of petals, chlorosis, wilting
Different nutrient deciency symptoms in Tagetes minuta L.
roots
13.19 Crop Duration
Crop has short duration whether it is planted in winter (December) or in rainy season from July to September. Crop planted in rainy seasons have to face many problems due to growth of weeds in the eld. Weeds can interfere with the yield of crop.
If weeds are not cleared from the crops, the crop can face the problems related to
productivity and growth [8].
13.20 Annual Production
“Tagetes oil” in the quantity of 42l imported by India is worth 10,028 USD.The
largest supplier of EO of Tagetes minuta L. is Switzerland that accounts for about
9037 USD. Other countries like France exported USD 677 and United States
exported USD 147 “Tagetes oil” in 2021. 98% of imports are accounted by Bombay
Air Cargo and 2% imports are accounted by Nhava Sheva Sea [19]. Average price
and average value per shipment of Tagetes minuta L. essential oil is estimated about
USD 241.21 and USD 346 respectively [45]. 100% export is accounted by Delhi Air
Cargo. Estimated Export price of (about 475l) oil in India is about USD 54,572.
Average price of “Tagetes oil” per unit and average value per shipment is USD
114.96 and USD 1605 respectively [9].
13.21 Chemical Composition ofWild Marigold
13.21.1 Secondary Metabolites
Wild marigold is abundant in a variety of secondary metabolites including (avonoids monocyclic and bicyclic monoterpenes, acyclic, sesquiterpenes, thiophenes
and aromatics). The main components include Beta phelandrene, Limonene, Beta
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ocimene, Dihydrotagetone, Tagetone, Tagetenone. Through oil extraction researchers have extracted various chemical compounds from stem, leaves and ower [18].
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13.21.2 Constituents ofLeaf
Thirteen compounds were investigated from leaf oil which was about 96.9%.
Ddihydrotagetone is about 17.6%, cis-beta-ocimene is 11.9% and borneol is 11.1%
[18, 22].
13.21.3 Constituents ofFlower
As far as the composition of various constituents in ower is concerned, transOcimenon is about 27%, cis- beta-ocimine is about 26% and cis-ocimenone is about
17.6% [18, 22].
13.21.4 Constituents ofseed
Dihydrotagetone and benzoic acid 4- hydroxy-methylester makes about (21%) and
(33.5%) are main constituents of seed respectively [18, 22].
13.21.5 Constituents ofCapitula
Researchers have found that capitula contains many components e.g., limonene that
shares 2.1–6.2%, Beta ocimine constitutes about 15–20%, alpha aterpinolene makes
15.6% of capitula. Similarly, other compounds such as E and Z tagetone makes 2.5
and 4.62% respectively. Piperitenone and piperitone are also constituents of plant’s
capitula [43].
13.22 Quantitative Analysis
From quantitative point of view essential oil from owers contain relatively greater
amount of β-ocimene and tagetenone as compared to the essential oil from the
leaves. Dihydrotagetone is the main component of non-bloomed plants which
decreases when plant blooms contrarily quantity of tagetenone and β-ocimene
increases [27, 46, 47].
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13.23 Essential Oil fromTagetes minuta L.
Oil is the one of the most famous products made from wild marigold. Countries all
over the world earn through export of its oil. Medical companies have also produced
many medicines by using different parts of this plant. Many products related to food
have also been produced by wild marigold. It is very protable crop. Almost all
parts of plants can be used for the extraction of essential oil. In 1984, about 1.5tons
was produced annually, which is now between 8 and 15tons perannum with the
estimated amount of (50 USD/kg). However, it had been quite hard to keep the
record of production and market value of the oil due to unknown reasons [45]. Some
countries have set organizations for maintaining selling price of oil e.g., an
organization in India named Floracopeia Aromatic Treasures, has set that price at
1.07USD/ml. Mountain Rose a herbs company of USA has set rate at 11.75USD
for half ounce, supplying towards South Africa and France. Whereas 8.20£ is set by
(Hermitage soil) that is a main supplier of special essential oils in the UK since
1979. Egypt and Zimbabwe are identied as world’s major producers of T. minuta
L. essential oil by International Trade Center. Some other countries like Nepal,
Brazil, India, Madagascar, Ukraine, Australia, Chile, Peru, Bolivia, Morocco,
Ecuador, Kenya and Paraguay are also the major producers of essential oil extracted
from T. minuta L.[13].
13.24 Impact ofDrying Processing onYield ofEssential Oil
Different drying methods can signicantly enhance the production of wild marigold
(Tagetes minuta L.) essential oil. Swati etal. (2020) conducted a research in which
three dry processing methods were investigated. Hydrodistillation was used to
obtain essential oil which was later analyzed by GC-MS.In this research different
time periods (0, 12, 24, 36, 48, 60, and 72h) were used. Results showed that sun
drying for 72h produced higher yield of essential oil whereas moisture content was
lower. However, these drying treatments didn’t alter the number of essential oil
components which remained nine in total. Major constituents were (Z)-ocimene,
dihydrotagetone, (E) & (Z)-tagetone, and (E) & (Z)-tagetenone. The amount of EO
and the percentage of two of its components (Z)-ocimene and dihydrotagetone were
immensely impacted by various drying methods and time. Sun drying for 60 h
showed higher percentage of (Z)-ocimene and lower amount of dihydrotagetone in
essential oil. However with rise in drying time the percentage of (Z)-ocimene
reduced in essential oil of wild marigold (Tagetes minuta L.) [48].
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13.25 Yield andProduction ofEssential Oil
Essential oil of the plant having greater percentage of Z-beta-ocimene i.e., about
35–50% has high rate and demand internationally. According to an estimate in year
2016, the EO of the wils marigold plant showed about 15tons annual production
and it is expected that its market value will reach up to 11.8 USD million by the year
2025 with a CAGR of 7.0% from 2020 to 2025 [20].
13.26 Impact ofNitrogen andSulfur onYield andQuality
ofEssential Oil
Fertilizers plays a crucial role in enhancing yield of crops; however, using excessive
amount of chemical fertilizers contaminates the atmosphere. It is hypothesized that
using nitrogen and sulfur fertilizers signicantly improves the yield and oil quality
of essential oil of Tagetes minuta L.In order to prove this claim an experiment was
carried out in which different concentrations of both fertilizers were employed to
Tagetes minuta L. plants which were then studied for 2years. Using nitrogen at
120kg ha−1 and sulfur at 60kg ha−1 produced higher biomass and essential oil yield
in contrast to control. At 120kg ha−1 of nitrogen and 40kg ha−1 of sulfur it was
found that stomatal density decreased whereas as density of oil glands increased
signicantly. Moreover, the concentration of EO component Z-B-ocimene increased
signicantly at this concentration. So it was concluded that 120kg ha−1 of nitrogen
and 40kg ha−1 of sulfur is best for maximum production of Tagetes minuta L. essen-
tial oil.
13.27 Importance ofWild Marigold
13.27.1 Pharmaceutical Importance
The oil of T. minuta L. has many useful applications in the eld of medicine for
example, it is used to treat wounds and a variety of infections. Tagetes Oil (in a 5%
dilution) has been used to kill maggots in open wounds. By mixing with cream or
lotion, it can be used for fungal and microbial infections and particularly it is proved
to be very helpful to cure wounds or athlete’s foot. By drinking the boiled mixture
(of boiled leaves) of the Tagetes minuta L., infections of respiratory system can be
cured. Its vapors have showed positive effects for example vapor from its leaves
have potential to treat coughs, bronchitis, headaches and chest infections [19].
In agricultural industry, it is being used as an insect repellent to avoid plants from
insect related disease. The vapors also show antiseptic activity in a room. Wild
marigold plant also has such compounds which exhibits topical applications [49].
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Flower decoctions of plant have been found to heal wounds and sores [50]. In
Kenya, its sap is being used for topical application. It is reported by Rahman etal.
that wild marigold is used to treat dental related diseases e.g. to heal mouth wounds
[51]. Digestive disorders can be cured by using the plant in different ways. In
various countries (Bolivia, Paraguay, Argentina, Brazil and Peru) T. minuta
L. infusions have role as digestives and appetizers. Its decoction is being used as
carminatives, vermifuges and anti-diarrheic. Leaves of plant can be chewed and it is
helpful to treat bad breath [52].
It is used as anti-parasites against food poisoning. Many diseases such as dyspepsia, gastritis and intestinal disorders can be cured by mixing its various constituents
in various medicines [46]. The leaf constituents are found to be helpful to reduce
milk secretion. Its decoction is also used as an expectorant or an anti- abortive. The
infusion of the plant is helpful in regulating menstrual ow. The whole plant is
diuretic and also has its applications in reducing fever and act as antipyretic. Its
leaves have been proved to be effective against liver diseases [53]. Its leaves and
stem both are used to make medicines to treat earache [54]. Disorders of bones,
joints, muscles and nerves can also be cured by the tea made up of its owers. This
is mostly done in Morocco and Bolivia [55]. In Brazil, it is used as a drug to induce
sleep [14].
H. Majeed et al.
13.28 Medicinal Properties forAnimals
Tagetes minuta L. has also showed medicinal properties for animal for example in
Ethiopia it is used to cure various diseases of animals such as blackleg, anthrax and
amoebiasis. This medicine is prepared by chopping the leaves and stems of the plant
and mixing the contents with water. The resultant medicine is administered orally to
the cattle and sheep [18].
13.29 Antifungal Activity ofT. minuta L.Essential Oil
The essential oil of Tagetes minuta L. is found to have antifungal activity due to
presence of limonene, camphor, cineole and α-pinene in it. Rhizoctonia solani,
Penicillium digitatum, Trichoderma and Aspergillus niger are some of the fungi
against which the T. minuta L. has shown strong antifungal activity. Research has
showed that the essential oil extracted from T. minuta L. leaves have high antifungal
activity than that extracted from its owers. It is also observed that the activity of
EO increases with the increase in concentration [18, 56].
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13.29.1 Antimicrobial Activity
In Argentina Tagetes minuta L. is commonly used in folk medicines for treating a
number of gastrointestinal diseases. Using extracts of wild marigold in different
fractions have been proved effective against the activity of gram positive and gram
negative bacteria. Quercetagetin-7-arabinosyl-galactoside present in Tagetes minuta
L. extract has shown signicant antimicrobial activity against Escherichia coli. The
leaf extract of Tagetes minuta L. completely inhibits the growth of this enteropathogen
bacteria. Growth was inhibited due to total avonoid content at low concentration [57].
13.29.2 Insecticidal Activity ofT. minuta L.
Awareness about the harmful impacts of synthetic insecticides has led people
towards the utilization of natural insecticides. Essential oils of various plants are
used for this purpose as they are easy to extract, biodegradable and ecofriendly. The
essential oil of T.minuta L. is found to be effective against head lice. It has also
shown insecticidal activity against Anopheles stephensi. EO extracted from aerial
parts of T. minuta L. is also found effective against Aedes aegypti, black moth and
beetles as well [11].
13.30 Repellent Activity
Repellents are the substances that deters the arthropods ying or landing on human
beings [58]. Researches are being carried out for production of natural repellents.
Essential oil of T.minuta L. is being studied for its repellent activities against mites
and ticks [11, 21].
13.31 Activity Against Nematodes
β-ocimene and dihydrotagetone are two compounds present in essential oil of
T.minuta L. that have shown nematicidal activity against Meloidogyne incognita, a
plant nematode. It has found to be highly active at 1–4% concentration against both
the eggs and the juvenile nematodes [10, 11].
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13.32 Activity Against Invasive Weeds
Weeds pose a serious threat to agro-ecosystems. It is found that Tagetes minuta
L. essential oil possess allelopatic potential and can act upon invasive weeds like
Chenopodium murale L., Phalaris minor Retz. and Amaranthus viridis L. It is
observed that the concentration of volatile essential oil of wild marigold signicantly
reduces the reproduction, growth and chlorophyll content of the attacking weeds.
The respiratory ability of weeds also diminishes by application of this essential oil.
Moreover, it wild marigold essential oil completely arrests the mitotic activity
within the growing weed. The dried leaf powder of T.minuta L. is also used to suppress growth of two rice paddy weeds.
13.33 Commercial Importance ofTagetes minuta L.
Essential oil (EO) is one of the main products obtained from Tagetes minuta L.,
which is further used in food products, beverages, in bakery items, deserts, as
avoring agent and in perfume industry. Oil is the one of the most famous product
made from wild marigold [10]. Countries all over the world earn through export of
its oil. Medical companies also have produced many medicines by using different
parts of this plant. Many products related to food have also being produced by wild
marigold. Thus it is very protable crop [43].
13.34 Ethnobotanical Usage ofTagetes minuta L.
Since early times T. minuta L. has captured the interest of human beings. It is used
in beverages, condiments, medicinal decoction, and in ritual/religious practices. Its
leaves, stem and owers are used as a culinary herb in South America where it is
known as ‘huacatay’. The huacatay paste is then used to make popular potato dish
of South America called as ‘Ocopa’. Since the times of Inca civilization in Peru
T.minuta L. is used for seasoning that imparts a unique herbal avor to the dishes.
Moreover, it also used in some areas to make ethnomedicinal teas. In Northern
Chile a traditional preparation of Tagetes minuta L. is used to make suico that
enhances avor of dishes [59]. The plant decoction and/or tea preparations may be
consumed either warm or cool and may be sweetened as per individuals’ taste. It has
been ofcially recognized by UN for its use in food color and for avor purpose in
condiments. It is also used in mayonnaise, pasta, dairy products like yogurt for
avor, as well as in bakery items. Moreover, the orange pigment obtained from the
petals of its owers is in great demand in poultry[24]. It can also be grown for
commercial purposes such as for sale in city markets. In India there is an increased
interest in Tagetes minuta L. for its remarkable properties of essential oil whereas
its owers are used to decorated Hindu temples.
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13.35 Arable Farming Systems
Farmers often plant wild marigold in their arable farming elds. It has been reported
to retain humidity in arable farming elds. It is benecial in several ways such as
rapid growth of Tagetes minuta L. shades out other plants that may be of less usage
to farmers. It is often an alternative host for Sclerotinia sclerotiorum in arable
farming system [2]. Sclerotinia sclerotiorum is a fungal pathogen that infects variety
of crops. The essential oil of Tagetes minuta L. is also found effective against three
species of common grain pests that are Tribolium castaneum, Rhyzopertha dominica,
and Callosobruchus anali. Thus the spray of wild marigold essential oil can protect
the crops during storage. According to United States Environmental Protection
Agency Tagetes minuta L. essential oil is found to be effective as an acaricide and
an insecticide against variety of pathogens attacking food crops. Thus essential of
wild marigold plays a signicant role in food security by protecting crops in elds
and during storage. Talking about livestock, so 20% concentration of Tagetes minuta
L. essential oil shows 95% efcacy against Rhipicephalus sanguineus, Amblyomma
cajennense and Argas miniatus. This oil has potential to control other livestock tick
species that causes severe economic losses to farmers. Thus using this essential oil
provides an environment friendly approach for production of safe acaricide to milk
and beef in livestock industry [43].
13.36 Myths, Legends, Tales, Folklore andinteresting Facts
Wild marigold is cultivated almost in every part of the world and most of the people
have various myths, tales, songs, saying etc. about them. The available literature
tells that Portuguese introduced marigolds in Subcontinent and since then it is
extensively planted in this region to make oral chain/garlands to use them on
marriages, festivals and for home decoration as well. Particularly, individuals
decorate their homes with marigold on various religion occasions [60]. In some
countries marigold is linked with autumn and death. Whereas somewhere it is
considered special ower of October. It is featured in all saints and souls’ celebrations
in Europe. It is replaced with saffron to color the soul-cakes. In some parts of
Europe, it is used to make garlands along with other owers and twined about
tombstones. In India, people use this ower to make offerings to their gods [13].
According to a dictionary of gardening of Marigold, In the Mexico it is known as
“Flower of death” They consider the marigold ower “Mexican soldiers” who (who
fought against the Spanish conquistadors) spilled their blood. They symbolize
reddish brown patches on the petals with blood. It is used to symbolize a feeling of
despaired love [8, 13].
In Mexico it is symbol of the annual holiday to celebrate and honor the souls of
departed. In an encyclopedia of religious (rites, rituals, and Festivals) it is written
that yellow is the symbol of death among the pre-hispanic people therefore marigolds
are profuse at the Day of the Dead celebration. In England like other owers
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