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Chapter 12
https://t.me/medicina_free
Black Pepper
MuhammadUmarIjaz, MuhammadFaisalHayat, AsmaAshraf,
andIshratRahman
12.1 Introduction
Herbs impart critical role in the nutritional balance since the emergence of human
era. Values of herbs are increasing day by day due to their use to enhance colors,
aroma, avors, medicinal as well as preservative properties [1]. The Piperaceae
family, which comprises of 13 genera & includes piper species, is primitive plant
family found in tropical climates [2]. According to Durant-Archibold etal. genus
Piper contains 4166 plants out of this 1457 approved, 1333 unassessed while 1376
species are synonyms [3].
Black Pepper also known as Piper nigrum L. is widely regarded as the “king of
spices” owing to its enormous trading shares in the international markets [4]. The
word pepper came from Sanskrit word “pippali” which means “berry” [5]. Black
pepper is a 50–60cm long woody tree having strong aroma and marvelous climbing
properties [6]. Black & white peppers are processed differently and are harvested at
different times. Black pepper contains the pulp because it is made by dehydrating
unripe fruits until wrinkles develops.
M. U. Ijaz (*) · M. F. Hayat
Department of Zoology, Wildlife and Fisheries, University of Agriculture,
Faisalabad, Pakistan
e-mail: umar.ijaz@uaf.edu.pk
A. Ashraf
Department of Zoology, Government College University, Faisalabad, Pakistan
I. Rahman
Department of Basic Dental Sciences, College of Dentistry,
Princess Nourah bint Abdulrahman University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023
M. Zia-Ul-Haq etal. (eds.), Essentials of Medicinal and Aromatic Crops,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-35403-8_12
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12.2 Taxonomic Rank ofP. nigrum
Kingdom: Plantae
Class: Equisetopsida
Sub class: Magnoliidae
Super order: Magnolianae
Order: Piperales
Family: Piperaceae
Genus: Piper
Species: nigrum
Geographically, P. nigrum is primarily grown in humid and hot climate [7] while
south Indian Peninsula’s Western Ghats are the main sites for growing black pepper,
which was later spread to other nations in South and Southeast Asia. Currently,
Vietnam is the major contributor in black pepper production with most of it being
grown in the country’s southern area [8
the globe in 2016 were Indonesia (70,000 metric tonnes), Vietnam (total production:
140,000 metric tonnes), Brazil (45,000 metric tonnes) followed by India (48,500
metric tonnes). Production of black pepper is increased in recent years due to high
cultivation in Indonesia and Vietnam [9]. The actual yield of plant depends directly
upon the number of leaves per stems. The dry form of seeds is designated as
“peppercorns”.
]. The top four pepper- producing nations in
12.3 Stem andLeaf ofBlack Pepper
Stem of black pepper grows up to 10m and is delicate, green and herbaceous which
is covered by blossom, fruits and leaves. In case of pepper plant, there are three
types of stems which include runner shoots, primary stem and fruit producing stem.
A single axis of stem bears 20–30 spikes of fruits [10]. The plant of black pepper
has alternate leaves along with 50–150 blooms and spikes. The leaves are lustrous
from dorsal side while light greenish from ventral and arrange alternatively with
green sparkling. Leaves are 3 to 6cm wide and 5–20cm long with a blade of 18cm
[11] (Fig.12.1).
12.4 Nutritive Composition
The leaves and fruits of P. nigrum are rich sources of carbohydrates, proteins, min-
erals, fats and bers. P. nigrum accessions are enriched by vitamin C, Ca, Mg, Zn
while moderate level of iron. Leaves are comprising of carbohydrates (32–46%),
proteins (17.46–20.30%), fat (3.59–4.04%), ash (10.30–12.94%), bers
(10.64–13.62%) and total energy 273–295kcal/100g. While the fruit composition
100000
150000
200000
250000
82
India Vietnam IndonesiaChina Brazil
12 Black Pepper
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50000
0
Fig. 12.1 The cultivation of black pepper in different regions throughout the world. (International
community 2011)
2004 2005200
010
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Table 12.1
Derivative Functions Reference
Piperine Anti-cancerous [13]
Essential oil As an aromatic compound [16]
Derivatives of black pepper and their activities
Prevent fat deposition [14]
Anti-microbial
Anti-inammatory [15]
Prevent worm infection [17]
includes carbohydrates (51.37–53.74%), proteins (8.44–9.18%), bers (5.13–5.50%)
and fat (12.77–15.05%) and total energy 361–384kcal/100g [12] (Table12.1).
12.5 Essential Oils ofP. nigrum
A colorless to greenish liquid is extracted from black pepper which constitutes 1 to
3% of black pepper having peppery aroma that is referred as essential oil of P. nigrum.
The chemistry of essential oil includes gravity (0.860–0.884), boiling point (54°C)
and refractive index (1.478–1.488) at room temperature along with levorotatory optical position [18, 19]. Essential oil from black pepper can be extracted by different
sorts of mechanism such as micro-extraction, liquid carbon dioxide and steam distillation. Evaluation of its nutritive value is carried out by using gas-chromatography,
column chromatography and mass spectrometric analysis [20, 21].
12.6 Chemical Constituents ofBlack Pepper
Guenther [22], Govindarajan [23] and Parmar et al. [24], have investigated the
chemical composition of pepper. Analytical information on the chemical make-up
of P. nigrum and the anti-microbial properties of pepper oil was reported by Menon
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Table 12.2
Chemical Percentage References
Cumaldehyde 15.7–63%
ρ-mentadien-1,3-al-7 2.2–27.4%
ρ-mentadien 1,4-al-7 0.3–17.4%
β-pinene 0.8–21%
ρ-cymene 4.2–23.2%
γ-terpinene 1.5–23.9%
Essential oil and its chemical constituents
[28–32]
[25], Menon & Padmakumari [26] as well as Sasidharan and Menon in [27].
Oleoresin, piperine, and pepper oil are three fundamental components that are frequently synthesized by chemical processing. The extraction of pepper oil from
ground pepper uses steam distillation, while the extraction of the other two components uses solvents extraction techniques. One of the most widely traded pepper
products is oleoresin which is synthesize by combining the avour (oil) and pungency (piperine) elements (Table12.2).
The black pepper oils and terpenes are major constituents of black pepper having
nitrogenous compounds [33, 34]. Other major odorants from black peppers include,
butyric acid, 2-isoproplyle-3- acid, α-pinene and phellandrene as well as limonene
and methyl propanal [35].
12.7 Farming ofBlack Pepper
Cultivation of P. nigrum and its management degrading the ecosystem to some
extent until shortening the life cycle of pepper vines [36]. Black pepper is evolved
from Miocene in the Western Ghats evergreen forests [37]. The domestication of
P. nigrum still remain obscure, however its cultivation was started decades ago in
India [38].
12.7.1 Different Varieties ofBlack Pepper
Only a few of P. nigrum cultivars are famous for their cultivation out of more than
100 varieties [39, 40]. P. nigrum is self-pollinating crop having high rate of vari-
ability among actual yields. Best quality and high yield cultivars were selected by
using different techniques such as hybridization, clonal selection as well as open
selection during pollination [40]. The rst cultivar of P. nigrum is Panniyur-1 which
was synthesized by hybridization technique. The quality of P. nigrum depends upon
the nutrients of essential oils and pipperine. Variability in the varieties of P. nigrum
is investigated on the basis of quality parameters [41]. Other varieties of black peppers are Chunuk, Malonan, Natar 1& 2, LDK, Petaling 1& 2, Bengkayang and
ciinten [42] (Table12.3).
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