Протезы клапанов сердца. Учебное пособие

Glossary

accusative [ kju:z tiv] — аккузатив, винительный падеж; аккузатив, слово в аккузативе, форма аккузатива

although [ :l «u] — хотя, если бы даже; несмотря на то, что case [keis] — падеж

categorical form [ k t« rik«l] — категориальная форма category [ k t ri] — категория; разряд; вид; класс compose [k«m pouz] — составлять

dative [ deitiv] — датив, дательный падеж; слово в дательном падеже, форма дательного падежа

demonstrative pronoun [di m n(t)str«tiv] — указательное местоимение

distinguish [di sti wi ] — различить; разглядеть, рассмот-

реть

feminine gender [ feminin] — женский род gender [ d end«] — род

genitive [ d enitiv] — родительный падеж, генетив; слово в родительном падеже, форма родительного падежа

indefinite pronoun [in definit] — неопределенное местоимение

indifferent [in dif( )r( )nt] — маловажный, незначительный, не имеющий значения

instrumental [ instru ment l] ‘творительный, инструментальный падеж’

interrogative pronoun [ int« r «tiv] — вопросительное ме-

стоимение

masculine gender [ m skjulin] — мужской род neuter gender [ nju:t ] — средний род

nominative [ n min tiv] — именительный падеж; слово в именительном падеже; форма именительного падежа

number [ n mb«] — число

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observe [«b z«:v] — наблюдать, следить (за чем-л.)

paradigm [ p r daim] — парадигма, совокупность всех форм слова

personal pronoun [ p«:s(«)n(«)l] — личное местоимение pronoun [ pr«unaun] — местоимение

plural [ plu r( )l] — множественный (об одной из граммем категории числа)

possessive pronoun [p« z«siv] — притяжательное местоимение

pronominal [pr n min l] — местоимённый

relative pronoun [ rel«tiv] — относительное местоимение similar [ simil ] — аналогичный; сходный

singular [ si j l ; si j l ] — единственное число subsystem [s b sist«m] — подсистема

superlative [su: p :l tiv; sju(:) p :l tiv] — превосходная сте-

пень; прилагательное или наречие в превосходной степени

to differ from [ dif ] — отличаться (от кого-л., чего-л.; в чём-л.); различаться (чем-л.)

to single out [si l] — выделять

23. The Adjective

The paradigm of the adjective is similar to that of the noun and the pronoun, i.e. it comprises Gender, Number, Case.

The grammatical category of case was built up by five forms: the Nominative, the Accusative, the Dative, the Genitive and the Instrumental.

There were two ways of adjective declensions — the Definite (weak) and the Indefinite (strong) declension.

The adjective followed the Definite (weak) declension mainly if the noun it modified had the stem originally ending in -n.

The Indefinite (strong) declension of the adjective coincided with the way of the pronoun declension.

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Thus in Old English there existed a complicated adjectival paradigm with two number forms, five case forms, three gender forms and two declensions.

Glossary

adjective declension — адъективное склонение

concord [ k k :d] — согласование (тип связи слов в словосочетании)

noun declension — именное склонение strong declension — сильное склонение weak declension — слабое склонение

24. Degrees of Comparison

The Adjective in Old English changed its forms not only to show the relation of the given adjective to other words in the sentence which was expressed by the gender, number and case of the adjective, but also to show the degree of the quality denoted by the adjective, i.e., the forms of the adjective in Old English could express degrees of comparison.

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The degrees of comparison were expressed, the same as all other grammatical notions, synthetically, namely:

a)by means of suffixation:

heard – heardra – heardost (hard)

b)by means of vowel gradation plus suffixation: eald – ieldra – ieldest (old)

c)by means of suppletive forms

od – bettra – betst (good)

the first means being unquestionably the most common.

Both suffixation and the use of suppletive forms in the formation of the degrees of comparison are original means that can be traced back to Common Germanic. But the use of vowel interchange is a feature which is typical of the English language only and was acquired by the language in the prehistoric period of its development.

The origin of vowel gradation in the forms eald – ieldra – ieldest is a result of the process of palatal mutation which the rootvowel ea underwent under the influence of the original stem-forming suffix -i, i.e.

A similar case is observed with strong (strong), long (long), etc. Irregularity Comparisons may be encountered in adjectives.

Some forms of the degrees of comparison may be called irregular, for they do not follow the predominant pattern. The Positives marked below with an asterisk have borrowed their comparatives and superlatives from other roots. Such Positives are therefore irregular, because they have no Comparative or Superlative of their own. The Comparative and Superlative are also defective, because they have no Positive of their own. In all the other examples the Comparative and Superlative are irregular, but formed from the same root as the Positive.

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Glossary

acquire [ kwai ] — получать, приобретать; овладевать

asterisk [ st risk] — звездочка, маленькая звезда; звездочка, знак сноски

defective [di fektiv] — имеющий недостатки, дефекты, дефектный; недостающий, отсутствующий

degrees of comparison [k m p ris( )n] — степени сравнения

encounter [en kaunt ; in kaunt ] — наталкиваться на (трудности), столкнуться с (трудностями); сталкиваться; иметь столкновение

notion [ n u ( )n] — понятие origin [ rid in] — происхождение

original [ rid ( )n( )l] — начальный, первоначальный, исходный

positive [ p z tiv] — положительная величина, положи-

тельный (о степени сравнения прилагательных); позитивный,

реальный, прямо выраженный, точный

predominant [pri d min nt] — господствующий, преобладающий, доминирующий, превалирующий

stem [stem] — основа

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superlative [sju: p :l tiv; su(:) p :l tiv] — превосходная сте-

пень; прилагательное или наречие в превосходной степени suppletive [ s pl tiv; s pli:tiv] — супплетивный

25. Adverbs

The main function of an adverb is the function of an adverbial modifier in a sentence. In the Old English period an adverb was simple and derivative. Simple adverbs were:

1)adverbs of a place: hw r ‘где’, þ r ‘там’, hwanan ‘откуда’, þапап ‘оттуда’;

2)adverbs of time: hwanne ‘когда’, þanne, þā ‘тогда’, hw le

‘в то время как’, sona ‘скоро, вскоре’;

3) adverbs of manner: hw Drе ‘однако, тем не менее’, hwon

‘немного’, þ r- fter ‘затем’, þ r-b ‘тем самым’.

The derivative adverbs ‘производные наречия’ were formed:

1) with the help of the suffix -е, which was added to an adjective to form adverbs of manner, for example: w d ‘широкий’ — w de

‘широко’; sweotul ‘ясный’ — sweotule ‘ясно’; heard ‘твердый’ — hearde ‘твердо’;

2) with the help of the suffix -lice (NE. -lу), which was added predominantly to nouns to form adverbs of manner, for example:

freond ‘друг’ — freondlice (дружественно); so þ ‘истина’— so

þlice ‘воистину’;

3)with the help of the suffix -es, which historically represented the ending of the a-stem declension type (genitive case, masculine nouns). The suffix -es was added to nouns of different stems for the formation of

adverbs, for example: dQZ ‘день’ — dQZes ‘днем’; пyd ‘необходи-

мость’ — пydes ‘по необходимости’; willa ‘воля’ — willes ‘охотно’.

The adverbs derived from adjectives, in the ancient period of Old English had degrees of comparison. The comparative degree of adverbs was usually formed with the help of the suffix -or and the superlative degree — with the help of the suffix -ost.

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Glossary

adverbial [ dv :bi l; dv :bi l] — адвербиальный,

наречный

derivative [di riv tiv] — производный, выведенный, вторичный; деривативный

derivative adverbs [ dv :b, d v :b] — производные на-

речия

derive [di raiv] — устанавливать происхождение, возводить manner — образ действий

modifier [ m di fai ] — определение

predominantly [pri d min ntli] — особенно, преимущественно

represent [ repri zent] — представлять, показывать, означать; символизировать, излагать, формулировать; объяснять, разъяснять

26. The Verb-System in Old English

The verb-system in Old English was represented by:

1)the category of number — singular and plural;

2)the category of person — first, second and third, it was represented only in the indicative singular and the imperative; there is no indication of person in the indicative plural or in any of the subjunctive forms;

3)the category of mood — indicative, subjunctive and imper-

ative;

4)the category of tense — Present and Past;

5)three non-finite forms of the verb, or verbal (Infinitive, Participle I and Participle II)

Except all these peculiarities the verb-system in Old English had one more feature. The verbs were divided into two groups to use different grammatical means for the formation verb-forms of the past tense. They were strong and weak.

Strong verbs formed their preterite and participle II by changing the root-vowel. Strong verbs preserved the Indo-European vowel gra-

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dation which employed a regular change of vowel to show grammatical or lexical distinctions: IE e – о – zero OE i – a – zero).

Weak verbs formed their preterite and participle II by adding the dental suffix -d(-t). Weak verbs were a productive morphological type.

Glossary

distinction [dis ti k ( )n] — различение, распознавание; разграничение

employ [im pl i] — употреблять, применять, использовать, задействовать; пользоваться (услугами)

imperative [im per tiv] — повеление

indication [ indi kei n] — признак, показатель; указание indicative [in dik tiv] — изъявительное наклонение

non-finite [ n n fainait] — нефинитный, неличный (о форме глагола)

non-finite verb [ n n fainait v :b] — неличная форма глагола preserve [pri z :v] — сохранять

subjunctive [s b d ktiv] — сослагательное наклонение

27. Morphological Classification of Verbs

All Old English verbs may be subdivided into a number of groups in accordance with the grammatical means with the help of which they built their principal stems.

There were two principal means for forming verb-stems in Old English: (1) by means of vowel interchange of the root vowel and (2) by means of suffixation.

In accordance with these two methods of the formation of the verb-stems all the verbs in Old English formed two main groups — the strong verbs and the weak verbs. There were other means of the formation of verb-stems in Old English as well, but the number of verbs belonging to those groups was not large.

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A.I. Smirnitsky suggested the following morphological classification of verbs in Old English.

Glossary

anomalous [ n m l s] — аномальный, ненормальный, неправильный; несоответствующий (чему-л.)

in accordance with [ k :d( )n(t)s] — в соответствии с чем- л., согласно чему-л.

morphological [ m :f l ʒik( )l] — морфологический

preterite [ pret( )rit] — претéрит. Грамматическое прошедшее время в наиболее общем смысле, охватывающее все разновидности действия (процесса), предшествующее моменту речи. Претерит ирреальный англ. preterite of irreality. Употреб-

ление форм претерита вместо сослагательного наклонения для выражения ирреального условия, пожелания и т.п.

preterite-present verbs [ pret( )rit prez( )nt v«:bz] — пре-

терито-презентные глаголы — выражают результат предшествующего действия, которое осознается как настоящее

suggest [s d est] — советовать, предлагать, внушать, наводить на мысль; выдвигать в качестве предположения

suppletion [s pli: ( )n] — супплетивность, супплетивизм — (замещение, сплетение)’ Образование форм одного и того же слова от разных корней или от основ, различия которых выходят за пределы чередований (иду – шел).

suppletive [ s pl tiv, s pli:tiv] — образующийся способом супплетивизма

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28. Strong Verbs in Old English

The strong verbs are verbs which use vowel-interchange as the principal means of expressing different grammatical categories. They conjugated by means of vowel interchange. The strong verbs had four principal forms. The vowel interchange, or “ablaut”, which was the principal grammatical means in the conjugation of the Old English strong verbs, was of two kinds: qualitative and quantitative.

The first five classes were mainly based on the qualitative ablaut; the sixth class — on the quantitative ablaut; verbs of the seventh class originally formed their principal forms by means of the socalled reduplication of the root syllable, but in the course of the development of the language those means were obliterated.

The Old English qualitative ablaut was akin to the Common Germanic ablaut and even Indo-European ablaut — its essence, as we remember, was the use of the gradation series consisting of a front vowel, back vowel and zero.

e – о – i – a –

In Russian, for instance, they use two grades of the series: e/zero to form the category of tense: Present tense: e — беру; Past tense: — брал

Glossary

akin [ kin] — родственный; похожий, сходный, близкий, такой же как

based on [ beizd n] — основанный, обоснованный (on/upon) conjugate [ k nd u eit] — спрягать, спрягаться

conjugation [ k nd u ei ( )n] — спряжение (глагольное словоизменение)

essence [ es( )n(t)s] — существо, сущность grade [ reid] – стадия, этап, уровень, степень

obliterate [ blit reit] — вычёркивать, стирать; удалять; (полностью) уничтожать

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