Протезы клапанов сердца. Учебное пособие

hence [hen(t)s] — отсюда

merely [mi li] — только, просто; единственно

mutate [mju: teit] — подвергаться умлауту, видоизменяться palatal [ p l t l] — палатальный, небный

sum [s m] — суммировать; складывать; подводить итог

17. Palatal Mutation in Old English

Palatal mutation or i-mutation, occurred somewhere during the 6th–7th centuries. The process affected Germanic words where a vowel in a stressed syllable was immediately followed by the sound [i] or [j] in the next syllable. Almost all vowels, both diphthongs and monophthongs became further forward and higher, or more palatal and narrower, with the exception of [e] and [i] which could go no further. This may be described as a kind of vowel harmony — a natural process affecting many modern languages: the vowels mutate, the change being caused by their partial assimilation to the following vowel (or semi-vowel).

Monophthongs

As a result of palatal mutation new phonemes entered the vow- el-system in Old English — the vowel phoneme [y] and the vowel phoneme [у], the result of the mutation of [u] and [u], respectively.

Diphthongs

ea > ie *ealdira > ieldra (elder)

eа > е * eleafian > el efan (to believe) eo > ie *afeorrian > afierran (to remove)

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eо > е * etreowi > etr ewe (true)

Though palatal mutation was a phonetic process it left traces in Old English grammar and word-stock.

Grammar: As a result of the process of palatal mutation there appeared vowel gradation in the system of the declension of nouns (root-stem declension). In the system of adjectives we have vowel gradation in the degrees of comparison, in the system of verbs vowel gradation is found in Old English irregular weak verbs.

Word-stock: Palatal mutation resulted in vowel interchange as a word building means.

Glossary

adjective [ d iktiv] — имя прилагательное

cause [k :z] — причина, основание; послужить причиной,

поводом (для чего-л.)

comparison [k m p ris( )n] — сравнение

declension [di klen n] — склонение

doom [dum] — рок, судьба, фатум; обрекать forward [ f :w d] — вперед

further [ f : ] — продвигаться harmony [ h :m ni] — гармония

interchange [ int t eind ] — (последовательное) чередова-

ние

irregular [i re ju:l ] — неправильный

occur [ k :] — происходить, случаться, совершаться partial [ p : l] — частичный, неполный

respectively [ri spektivli] — в указанном порядке; соответственно, соответствующим образом

semi-vowel [ semi vau l] — полугласный (звук)

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though [ u] — хотя, несмотря на

to deem [di:m] — думать, мыслить, полагать, считать to heal [hi:l] — вылечивать, исцелять

vowel gradation [ vau l r dei ( )n] — аблаут, фонетически не обусловленное чередование гласных

18. Old English Consonants

The Old English consonant system consisted of some 14 consonant phonemes denoted by the letters: p, b, m, f, t, d, n, s, r, 1, þ (D), с, , h.

The consonant system in Old English manifested the following peculiarities.

1.The relatively small number of consonant phonemes — only 14 phonemes.

2.The absence of affricates and fricative consonants which we

now find in the language such as [t ], [d l, [ ], [ ]

3. Dependence of the quality of the phoneme upon its environment in the word.

If the first two points require no particular explanation, the last point calls for a special comment.

Dependence of the quality of the consonant phoneme upon its environment in the word

Among the 14 consonant phonemes that existed in Old English there were at least 5 that gave us positional variants which stand rather wide apart.

1. The phonemes denoted by the letters f, þ, D or s are voiced or

voiceless depending upon their phonetic position. They are generally voiced in the so-called “intervocal position” that is between vowels and voiceless. For example:

hlaf [f] (bread) – hlaford [v] (lord, originally hlafweard – bread-keeper)

os [s] (goose, Now. Sing.) – oses [z] (Gen. Sing.) toD [ ] (tooth, Nom. Sing.) – toDes [D] (Gen. Sing.)

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2.The phoneme denoted by the letter с also gave at least two variants — palatal [k'] and velar [k]. In the majority of cases it was a velar consonant and palatal generally before the vowel i. Compare: cild (child), scip (ship) where с denotes the palatal consonant [k'] and such words as can (can), climban (to climb) when the letter с denotes the corresponding velar variant of the phoneme [k].

3.Similar remarks can be made about the phoneme denoted by

the letter : we have the voiced velar plosive variant [ ] of it at the beginning of the word before back vowels or consonants or in the middle of the word after n: od (good), retan (to greet, to address),

аn аn (to go);

the voiced velar fricative variant [ ] in the middle of the word between back vowels: da as (days);

the voice palatal fricative variant [j] before and after front vowels: d (day), eаr (year).

The system of consonant phonemes that we observe in Old English involves certain peculiarities that are typical of the majority of Germanic dialects which set them (those Germanic dialects and Old English among them) apart from the majority of the IndoEuropean languages. Those peculiarities were mainly accounted for by two linguists — Jacob Grimm and Karl Verner, hence they are generally referred to as “Grimm's law” (or the first Germanic consonant shift) and “Verner's law”.

Glossary

comment [Èk ment, Èk m nt] — комментарий, замечание, примечание, ссылка

manifest [ m nifest] — проявляться, обнаруживаться otherwise [ ÃD waiz] — иначе, иным способом; иным обра-

зом; по-другому

velar [ vi:l ] — велярный звук, задненёбный звук

to climb [klaim] — взбираться, влезать, карабкаться, подниматься

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19. The Old English Noun

The Old English noun paradigm was composed by the following grammatical categories: 1) gender, 2) number, 3) case. The Old English noun formed its paradigm by the opposition of three genders, two numbers and four cases. Thus, presumably, the noun had twentyfour word-forms.

1)The category of gender was formed by the opposition of three gender-forms: masculine, feminine and neuter.

2)The grammatical category of number was formed by the opposition of two categorical forms: the singular and the plural.

3) The noun-system in OE comprised several declension types. The noun was declined according to the type it belonged to. The choice of these types was not determined by any visible cause; it was fixed. However, in prehistoric times all Germanic nouns must have had the so called stem-suffix between the root and the ending, which accounted for the formation of these clearly defined groups. The part of the word comprising the root and the stem-suffix formed its stem.

Glossary account for [« kaunt] — объяснять

category [ k t ( )ri] — категория; разряд; вид; класс cause [k :z] — причина, основание

composed [k m pouz] — составлять

comprise [k«m praiz] — включать; заключать в себе, содержать

declension types [di klen «n] — склонение; классы склоне-

ний

decline [di klain] — склонять

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feminine [ feminin] — женский, принадлежащий женщине;

сокр. f., fem; = feminine gender женский род fix — неподвижный, постоянный

masculine [ m skjulin] — мужской, принадлежащий муж-

чине; сокр. m; = masculine gender мужской род

neuter [ nju:t ] — средний род; существительное, прилагательное, местоимение среднего рода

visible [ viz«bl; vizib( )l] — видимый, видный

paradigm [ p r daim] — парадигма, совокупность всех форм слова

prehistoric [ pri:hi st rik] — доисторический

20. The Old English Gender

All nouns, no matter whether they denoted living beings, inanimate things or abstract notions belonged to one of the three genders: masculine, feminine and neuter.

The subdivision of Old English nouns in accordance with their grammatical gender is traditional, the correspondence between the meaning of the word and its grammatical gender being hard to trace.

Some nouns denoting animals were also treated as neuter, such as cicen (chicken), hors (horse), etc.

The grammatical gender did not always coincide with the natural gender of the person and sometimes even contradicted it (thus, for instance, the noun wifman (woman) was declined as masculine).

Compare stan (stone, masculine), ban (bone, neuter), cwen

(queen, feminine) which belong to different genders but have similar forms.

Glossary

abstract [ bstr kt] — абстракция, отвлечённое понятие; абстрактный, отвлечённый

coincide [ k uin said] — совпадать, совмещаться contradicted [ k ntr dikt] — противоречить

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denoting [di nouti ] — значащий, означающий, выражаю-

щий

gender [ d end ] — род

inanimate [in nim t; in nimit] — неживой, неодушевлён-

ный

notion [ nou n] — идея, представление, понятие, знание to trace — отыскивать; отслеживать

21. The Old English Case

The original paradigm had undergone great changes due to the fusion of the original stem suffix and the original grammatical ending into one element which from the point of view of Old English is to be regarded as a grammatical ending. As a result of that fusion nouns that are known to have had different stem-suffixes originally in Old English acquired materially different endings in the same case.

The original stem suffixes were formed both by vowels and by consonants. Thus there were two respective principal groups of declensions in Old English: the vowel declension (“strong” declension) and the consonant declension (“weak” declension).

1) The vowel (strong) declension comprises four principal paradigms:

the a-stem and its variations -ja- and -wa-, masculine and neuter nouns;

the o-stem and its variations -jo- and -wo-, feminine nouns; the i-stem, all the three genders;

the u-stem, masculine and feminine nouns.

2)The consonant (weak) declension comprises nouns with the stem originally ending in:

n-stem, all the three genders;

r-stem, masculine and feminine nouns; es-stem, neuter and some other consonants.

3)The root-stem declension of nouns

In the earliest OE there was a group of nouns (more than twen-

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ty) which hadn’t got a stem-formation affix. So such form of the noun was the root and the stem at the same time which became a root basis and was called the root-stem. The case ending was directly added to the end of the root-stem. A special type, called the rootstem, formed several cases by changing the root vowel due to mutation, and not by adding an inflexion.

Glossary acquire [ kwai ] — приобретать fusion [ fju: n] — слияние

inflexion [in flek («)n] — изменение формы слова (склонение или спряжение); окончание, флексия, изменяемая часть слова

materially [m« ti«ri«li] — материально; по своей сути, существу

original [« rid («)n(«)l] — начальный, первоначальный, исходный

respective [ri spektiv] — соответственный, соответствующий the root basis — основа корневая. Морфологический корень, т.е. основа, не поддающаяся разложению на корень и аф-

фикс по отношению к данному состоянию языка.

the root-stems — группа существительных, у которых отсутствовал основообразующий аффикс, так что падежные окончания присоединялись непосредственно к концу слова. Такие корни существительных, которые являются одновременно и корнями и основами слова, носят название «корневые основы». Особенность этой группы существительных заключается в то, что они имеют в дательном падеже единственного числа и в именительном и винительном падежах множественного числа гласный переднего ряда, возникший как результат переднеязычной перегласовки под воздействием гласного i, некогда входившего в состав окончаний названных падежей. Этот гласный вызвал перегласовку корневого гласного, а затем отпал. Многие из слов этой группы сохранились и до наших дней, составляя в системе современного английского языка группу существитель-

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ных, образующих форму множественного числа с чередованием гласного корня: foot – feet, tooth – teeth и т.д.

undergo [ Ãnd« gou] — подвергаться (чему-л.)

22. The Pronoun in Old English

The following classes of pronouns were to be observed in Old English: personal, possessive, demonstrative, interrogative, relative and indefinite pronouns.

The system of declension of the pronoun was not the same for all the classes. It has at least two subsystems that should be singled out: the declension of personal pronouns on the one hand and the declension of other pronouns. Although the grammatical categories of each subsystem were the same, i. e. gender, number, case, the number of the categorical forms composing those categories was different.

The personal pronoun

The Old English personal pronoun similar to the Old English noun had the grammatical categories of gender, number and case.

Three genders could be distinguished in the pronominal paradigm: masculine, feminine and neuter, but different forms for different genders were found only in the third person singular, the rest of the forms being indifferent to gender.

The category of number differs from that of the noun as in the first and second person we find three categorical forms: singular, dual and plural, for instance:

The category of case is built up by the opposition of four categorical forms, similar to those of the noun: Nominative, Genitive, Dative and Accusative.

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The table below may serve as an example of the declension of personal pronouns.

Unlike the Old English noun, the paradigm of which was composed of forms that mainly differed in the ending, the paradigm of the Old English personal pronouns is built up by superlative forms and the homonym of pronominal forms is not great. We find it only in the Dative and the Accusative cases.

Declension of the personal pronoun ic

Other pronouns. All Old English pronouns with the exception of personal pronouns were declined almost alike. They expressed the grammatical categories of gender (three forms: masculine, feminine and neuter), number (two forms: singular and plural) and five cases: the Nominative, the Accusative, the Dative, the Genitive and the Instrumental.

Declension of the demonstrative pronoun se

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