Протезы клапанов сердца. Учебное пособие

гласных суффикса или окончания. Все разновидности перегласовки наиболее богато представлены в скандинавских языках

11.The Development of the Germanic Morphological System

One of the main processes in the development of the Germanic

morphological system was the change in the word structure. The common Indo-European notional word consisted of three elements: the root, expressing the lexical meaning, the inflexion or ending, showing the grammatical form, and the so-called stem-forming suffix, a formal indicator of the stem type.

Germanic languages belonged to the synthetic type of formbuilding. They expressed the grammatical meanings by changing the forms of the word itself, not resorting to any auxiliary words.

The Germanic nouns had a well-developed case system with four cases (nominative, genitive, dative, accusative) and two number forms (singular and plural). They also had the category of gender (feminine, masculine and neuter). The means of form-building were the endings added to the root/stem of the noun.

The Germanic adjectives had: 1) two types of declension: strong and weak; degrees of comparison (the forms were formed with the help of suffixes -iz/-oz and -ist/-ost and there were also different roots for different forms, common for many Indo-European languages.

The Germanic verbs were divided into two principal groups: strong and weak verbs, depending on the way they formed their past tense forms.

The past tense (or preterite) of strong verbs was formed with the help of Ablaut, qualitative or quantitative. Strong verbs were further subdivided into classes. Weak verbs expressed preterite with the help of the dental suffix -d/-t. There was also a small group of highly frequent suppletive verbs forming their forms from different roots.

The Germanic verb had a well-developed system of categories, including the category of person (first, second, third), number (singular and plural), tense (past and present), mood (indicative, imperative and optative).

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Glossary

declension [di klen ( )n] — склонение; классы склонений preterite [ pret( )rit] — претерит (форма прошедшего вре-

мени)

resort [ri zɔ:t] — обращаться, прибегать suppletive [s pli:tiv; s pl tiv] — супплетивный

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PART II. THE OLD ENGLISH PERIOD

12. Principal Written Records of the Old English Period

The principal written records that came to us through the centuries date from as far back as the 8th century. They are generally classified either in accordance with the alphabet used or in accordance with the dialect of the scribe who wrote the record.

Among the first Old English runic inscriptions we generally mention two: 1) the inscription on the so-called “Franks' casket” — a small box made of whalebone containing a poem; 2) the inscription on the “Ruthwell cross” — a religious poem engraved on a stone cross found in Scotland.

If we speak about the first criterion — the alphabet (runic or insular) — the first group is rather scarcely represented (Frank's casket, Ruthwell cross), the other group having many written records. But generally the records are classified in accordance with their dialect: Northumbrian (Franks' casket, Ruthwell cross, Caedmon's hymns, Mercian (translation of the Psalter) ‘a) Псалтырь, Псалтирь (одна из книг Библии, содержит 150 псалмов) б) = psalter молитвенник,

молитвослов’), Kentish (psalms), West Saxon (The Anglo-Saxon chronicle, the translation of a philosophical treatise Cura Pastoralis, King Alfred's Orosius — a book on history).

There were also many translations from other dialects, an example of which is Bede's Ecclesiastical History of the English People (лат. Historia Ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum). He wrote on language, science and chronology and composed numerous commentaries on the Old and New Testament.

With the rise of Wessex to the dominant position among the Old English kingdoms in the 9th and 10th centuries, and thanks to the powerful influence of their learned King Alfred, the Wessex dialect became the chief vehicle of literature. All the works of literary importance that have survived, both prose and poetry, are written in the Wessex dialect, with only occasional traces of other dialects, and in this sense it may be regarded as typical of the Old English period.

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Glossary

Anglo-Saxon [ lou- s ks( )n] — англосаксонский, анг-

лосакский; ист. англосакс (представитель германских племен англов, саксов, ютов и фризов, завоевавших в V–VI вв. Британию)

Bede's [bed] — соб. имя Бед

Caedmon's hymns [himz] — (церковный гимн) Песнь Кэд-

мона

casket [ k :skit] — шкатулка (для хранения бумаг, драгоценностей); рунический ларец, найденный английским археологом А. Фрэнксом в районе города Клермон-Феран во Франции (середина VII в.)

chronicle [ kr nikl] — хроника; летопись

contain [k n tein] — содержать в себе, включать, иметь в своём составе; вмещать

criterion [krai ti ri n] — критерий; признак

Cura Pastoralis [ ku:ra: pa:st r lis] — Долг пастыря

Ecclesiastical [i kli:zi stik( )l] — церковный

Ecclesiastical History of the English People (лат. Historia Ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum) — «Церковная история англов»

Kentish [ kenti ] — кентский диалект; кентский

King Alfred [ lfr d] — Ал(ь)фред

learned [ l :nid] — ученый, эрудированный; знающий, сведущий, хорошо информированный

Mercian [ m :si n, m : i n] — обитатель Мерсии; мерсийский диалект

Northumbrian [n : mbri n] — нортумбрский, нортумберлендский; житель древней Нортумбрии; житель Нортумберленда; северный диалект англо-саксонского языка; нортумберлендский диалект английского языка; нортамберлендец (житель или уроженец графства Нортамберленд); нортумбрец (житель или уроженец Нортумбрии)

Orosius [ r zi n] — a book on history «Орозия»

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philosophical [ fil s fik l] — философский

psalms [sa:mz] — «Псалмы» (часть Библии, состоящая из 150 псалмов, приписываемых царю Давиду; нумерация псалмов в библиях на английском и русском языках не всегда совпадает)

Psalter [ s :lt ] — Псалтырь, Псалтирь (одна из книг Библии, содержит 150 псалмов); молитвенник, молитвослов

records [ rek :dz] — письменная фиксация

Ruthwell cross — Ратвельский крест — большой каменный крест, воздвигнутый у деревни Ruthwell (VIII в.)

scarcely [ sk sli] — недостаточно, скудно, редко treatise [ tri:tiz] — трактат; научный труд; курс (учебник)

Wessex [ wesiks] — Уэссекс (королевство, основанное западными саксами в VI в. Захватило территорию ряда королевств и в том же веке образовало единое английское королевство; на его территории ныне находятся графства Гэмпшир, Дорсетшир, Уилтшир, Сомерсет, Суррей, Глостершир, Бакингемшир

whalebone [ (h)weilb un] — китовый ус

13. The Runic Alphabet

Although the people of the Germanic tribes were mostly illiterate, some of the Germanic nations had their own mode of writing, with a distinctive alphabet called runic, each letter of which was called a rune. The word "rune" meant "mystery", and those letters were originally considered to be magic signs known to very few people, mainly monks. The vast majority of the illiterate population didn’t understand them. There were about 26 letters in the alphabet, the shapes of which were quite peculiar. The Runic alphabet was composed by Germanic scribes in the II–III centuries AD. The early runes were not written, but incised — runic script was designed for inscribing, at first on wood then on metal, bone, and stone. Their angular shapes were due to the material those inscriptions were made on — wood, stone, bone. The letters were not written but carved on those hard materials. There were variations in some letter forms. We do not know where and when runes were invented. Runes soon spread over the Germanic world. By

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500 AD they were found not only in Denmark, Sweden, Norway, England, but also in Poland, Russia and Hungary. Runes were used for many centuries and in many lands, gradually changing in their passage through time and space.

Glossary

AD [ ei di:] — сокращ. от Anno Domini; лат. н.э., нашей эры; Р.Х., от Рождества Христова

although [ :l Dou] — хотя, если бы даже; несмотря на то,

что

angular [ jul ] — заострённый, с острыми углами carve [ka:v] — резать, вырезать (по дереву или кости);

гравировать; высекать (из камня)

distinctive [di sti ktiv] — особенный, особый

incised [in saizd] — выгравированный; украшенный резь-

бой

inscribe [in skraib] — вырезать, начертать на дереве, камне (имя, надпись)

magic [ m d ik] — волшебство, магия monk [m k] — монах

mystery [ mist( )ri] — тайна, загадка, головоломка

peculiar [pi kju:li ] — специфический; особенный; своеобразный

rune [ru:n] — руна (одна из вырезавшихся на дереве, камне и т.д. букв алфавита, применявшегося скандинавскими и другими германскими народами)

runic [ ru:nik] — рунический, относящийся к рунам, написанный рунами; рунический (об эпических песнях скандинавов); древнескандинавский

Runic Alphabet [ ru:nik Qlf«b«t] — руническое письмо

scribe [skraib] — писец; переписчик (документов, рукопи-

сей); переписывать (манускрипты), работать переписчиком, книжник

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script [skript] — система письма; алфавит

shape [ eip] — форма, очертание; придавать форму; делать

по какому-л. образцу

sign [sain] — знак; символ

14. The Latin Alphabet

In the 7th century the Christian faith was introduced and with it there came many Latin-speaking monks who brought with them their own Latin alphabet. The Latin alphabet was used by the majority of the people who could read and write. It ousted the Runic alphabet. But the Latin alphabet could not denote all the sounds in the English

language, for example, the sounds [w], [ ]. For that purpose some runes were preserved — w, Þ (wyn), or some Latin letters were slightly altered — D to denote the sounds [ ], [D] together with the

rune þ.

This alphabet that is a combination of the Latin alphabet with runes and some other innovations is called “insular writing”, i.e. the alphabet typical of the Isles. The majority of Old English records are written in this insular alphabet. The spelling in these early records is on the whole phonetic and reasonably consistent, so that it is possible to learn much about the early pronunciation.

Glossary alphabet [ lf b t] — алфавит; азбука

alter [ :lt ] — изменять; менять; видоизменять, вносить изменения

Christian [ krist n, kristi n] — христианский, христианин, христианка

consistent [k n sist( )nt] — последовательный, совместимый, согласующийся

faith [fei ] — вера; вера в Бога, религиозная вера

innovation [ in u vei ( )n] — нововведение, новшество; инновация, новаторство, новация

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insular [ insjul ] — островной

introduce [ intr dju:s] — вводить, открывать

majority [m d riti] — большинство oust [aust] — вытеснять; устранять preserve [pri z :v] — сохранять, сберегать

pronunciation [pr n nsi ei ( )n] — произношение, выговор; акцент; фонетическая транскрипция

reasonably [ ri:z( )n bli] — довольно, достаточно

15. The Vowels of the Old English Period

The history of the English language begins in the fifth century AD. During the Old English period the language was developing very slowly. The phonetics of the Old English period was characterized by a system of dynamic stress. The fixed stress fell on the first

root syllable: agāne (gone); esēon (see); aderian (gather). The vowels had the following characteristic features:

1.The quantity and the quality of the vowel depended upon its position in the word. Under stress any vowel could be found, but in unstressed position there were no diphthongs or long monophthongs, but only short vowels [a], [e], [i], [o], [u].

2.The length of the stressed vowels (monophthongs and diphthongs) was phonemic, which means that there could be two words

differing only in the length of the vowel: pin (pin) – p n (pain); god

(god) – god (good).

3. There was an exact parallelism of long and short vowels:

Glossary

a root syllable [ ru:t sil bl] — корневой слог

characteristic feature [ k r kt ristik fi:t ] — характерная особенность (черта)

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characterize [ k r kt( )raiz] — характеризовать, описывать, определять

depend upon smth. [di pend] — зависеть, находиться в зависимости (от кого-л., чего-л.)

differing [ dif ri ] — отличающийся diphthong [ dif ] — дифтонг

dynamic stress [dai n mik] — силовое ударение, динамическое ударение

exact [i z kt] — точный; строгий

in unstressed position [ n strest p zi ( )n] — в безударном положении

length [le (k) ] — долгота monophthong [ m n f ] — монофтонг

parallelism [ p r leliz( )m] — параллелизм, параллельность

phonemic [f ni:mik, fo( ) ni:mik] — фонематический;

функционально значимый

quality [ kw l ti] — качество quantity [ kw nt ti] — количество

16. Changes in Old English vowel phonemes

Changes in Old English vowel phonemes took place in the prehistoric period of the development of the English language. They explain the difference between Old English and Common Germanic vowels which were of two types: assimilative changes and independent (non-assimilative) changes.

Independent changes do not depend upon the environment in which the given sound was found. They cannot be explained, but they are merely stated, for example:

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Assimilative changes are explained by the phonetic position of the sound in the word. The most important of them are breaking and palatal mutation.

The process of breaking took place in the 6th century. It affected two vowels — [ ] and [e] when they were followed by the consonants [r], [1], [h] generally followed by another consonant. The resulting vowel was a diphthong (hence the name “breaking” — a monophthong “was broken” into a diphthong), consequently the process may be summed up as diphthongization of short vowels [ ] and [e] before certain consonant clusters.

For example:

Glossary

affect [ fekt] —(воз)действовать, влиять assimilative [ simil tiv] — ассимилирующий

breaking [ breiki ] — преломление гласных, дифтонгиза-

ция. Развитие в монофтонге скольжения к иному тембру, ведущее к возникновению дифтонга

cluster [ kl st ] — скопление, группа

consequently [ k nsikw ntli] — следовательно; поэтому; в результате, вследствие

diphthongization [ dif ai zei n] — дифтонг environment [in vai r( )nm nt] — окружение

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