Английский язык (Магистратура). Учебное пособие
.pdfwheat flour also makes possible multi-grain breads such as the "rye and Indian" bread of the American colonies, which combined rye and wheat with cornmeal in one loaf.
Теxt 12
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Сhemical process
In a "scientific" sense, a chemical process is a method or means of somehow changing one or more chemicals or chemical compounds.
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occur by itself |
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be caused by |
somebody. Such a chemical process commonly involves a chemical |
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reaction of some sort. In an "engineering" sense, a chemical process is |
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a method intended to be used in |
manufacturing or |
on |
an industrial |
scale (see Industrial process) to change the composition of chemical(s) or material(s), usually using technology similar or related to that used in chemical plants or the chemical industry.
Neither of these definitions is exact in the sense that one can always tell definitively what is a chemical process and what is not; they are practical definitions. There is also significant overlap in these two definition variations. Because of the inexactness of the definition, chemists and other scientists use the term "chemical process" only in a general sense or in the engineering sense. However, in the "process (engineering)" sense, the term "chemical process" is used extensively. The rest of the article will cover the engineering type of chemical process.
Although this type of chemical process may sometimes involve only one step, often multiple steps, referred to as unit operations, are involved. In a plant, each of the unit operations commonly occur in individual vessels or sections of the plant called units. Often, one or more chemical reactions are involved, but other ways of changing chemical (or material) composition may be used, such as mixing or separation processes. The process steps may be sequential in time or sequential in space along a stream of flowing or moving material. For
a given amount of a feed (input) material or product (output) material, an expected amount of material can be determined at key steps in the process from empirical data and material balance calculations. These
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amounts can be scaled up or down to suit the desired capacity or operation of a particular chemical plant built for such a process. More
than one chemical plant may |
use the same chemical process, each |
plant perhaps at differently scaled capacities. |
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Such chemical processes |
can be illustrated generally as block |
flow diagrams or in more detail as process flow diagrams. Block flow diagrams show the units as blocks and the streams flowing between them as connecting lines with arrowheads to show direction of flow.
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addition to |
chemical |
plants |
for producing |
chemicals, |
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chemical processes with similar technology and equipment are also |
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used in |
oil |
refining |
and |
other |
refineries, natural gas |
processing, |
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polymer |
and |
pharmaceutical |
manufacturing, |
food processing, and |
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water and wastewater treatment.
Теxt 13
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Monopolistic competition |
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Monopolistic competition is a form of imperfect competition |
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where many competing producers sell products that are differentiated |
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from one another (that is, the products are substitutes |
but, |
with |
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differences such as branding, are not exactly alike). In it, a firm takes |
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the prices charged by its rivals as given but ignores the impact of its |
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own prices on the prices of other firms. In monopolistic competition, |
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firms can behave like monopolies in the short run, including using |
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market power to generate profit. In the long run, other firms enter the |
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market and the benefits of differentiation decrease with competition; |
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the market becomes more like perfect competition where firms cannot |
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gain |
economic |
profit. |
However, |
in |
reality, |
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if |
consu |
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rationality/innovativeness |
is |
low |
and |
heuristics |
is |
preferred, |
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monopolistic competition can fall into natural monopoly, |
at |
the |
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complete absence of government intervention. At the presence of |
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coercive |
government, |
monopolistic |
competition |
will |
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fall |
into |
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government-granted monopoly. Unlike perfect competition, the firm |
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maintains spare capacity. Models of monopolistic |
competition are |
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often used to model industries. Textbook examples of industries with |
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market |
structures |
similar |
to |
monopolistic |
competition |
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include |
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restaurants, cereal, |
clothing, |
shoes, and service industries in large |
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cities. |
The |
"founding |
father" |
of |
the |
theory |
of |
monopolistic |
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competition was Edward Hastings Chamberlin in his pioneering book |
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on the |
subject |
Theory of |
Monopolistic |
Competition |
(1933). |
Joan |
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Robinson also receives credit as an early pioneer on the concept. Monopolistically competitive markets have the following
characteristics: |
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· There are |
many producers |
and many consumers in |
a given |
market, and no business has total control over the market price. |
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· Consumers |
perceive that |
there are non-price |
differences |
among the competitors' products. |
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·There are few barriers to entry and exit.
·Producers have a degree of control over price.
The long-run characteristics of a monopolistically competitive |
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market are almost the same as in perfect |
competition, with |
the |
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exception |
of |
monopolistic |
competition |
having |
heterogeneous |
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products, and that monopolistic competition involves a great deal of |
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non-price |
competition (based on subtle product |
differentiation). |
A |
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firm making profits in the short run will break even in the long run |
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because demand will decrease and average total |
cost will |
increase. |
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This means in the long run, a monopolistically competitive firm will |
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make zero economic profit. This gives |
the amount |
of influence over |
the market; because of brand loyalty, |
it can raise its prices without |
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losing all of its customers. This |
means that |
an individual firm's |
demand curve is downward sloping, in contrast to perfect competition, which has a perfectly elastic demand schedule.
Major characteristics
There are six characteristics of monopolistic competition (MC):
·product differentiation,
·many firms,
·free entry and exit in long run,
·Independent decision making,
·Market Power,
·Buyers and Sellers have perfect information.
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Теxt 14
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Nano spray dryers |
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Nano spray dryers refer to using spray drying to create particles |
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in the nanometer range. Spray drying is a gentle method for producing |
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powders with a defined particle size out of solutions, dispersions, and |
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emulsions |
which |
is |
widely |
used |
for |
pharmaceuticals, |
food, |
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biotechnology, and other industrial materials synthesis. |
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In the past, the limitations of spray drying were the particle size |
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(minimum 2 microns), the yield (maximum around 70 %), and the |
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sample volume (minimum 50 ml for devices in lab scale). Recently, |
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minimum particle sizes have been reduced |
to 300 nm, yields up to |
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90 % are possible, and the sample amount can be as small as 1 ml. |
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These expanded limits are possible |
due |
to |
new |
technological |
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developments to the spray head, the |
heating |
system, and |
the |
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electrostatic |
particle |
collector. To |
emphasize |
the |
small |
particle |
sizes |
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possible with this new technology, it has been described as "nano" spray drying. However, the smallest particles produced are in the submicron range common to fine particles rather than the nanometer scale of ultrafine particles.
The functional principle is basically the same as with normal spray dryers. There are just different technologies that are used to do similar things.
The drying gas enters the system via the heater. A new kind of heater system allows for laminar air flow. The spray head sprays the fine droplets with a narrow size distribution into the drying chamber. The droplets dry and become solid particles. The solid particles are separated in the electrostatic particle collector. The exhaust gas is
filtered and sent to a fume hood or the environment. The inlet temperature is controlled by a temperature sensor.
Application
Food: Also in the field of food science this technology offers new possibilities. Especially in the currently vibrant field of functional
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food, the following list shows examples of what is possible:
·Nano food – Functional additives,
·Encapsulation of fruit aromas, flavours, or perfumes,
·Spray drying of fine powder aromas for pet food,
·Encapsulation of fish oil for smell protection,
·Vitamins, other food additives, etc.
Теxt 15 |
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Certification process
A product might be verified to comply with a specification or
stamped with a specification number. This does not, by itself, indicate |
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that the |
item |
is fit for any particular use. The person |
or group of |
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persons |
who |
own the |
certification |
scheme |
(i.e., engineers, |
trade |
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unions, building code writers, government, industry, etc.) have the |
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responsibility |
to consider |
the choice of |
available |
specifications, |
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choose |
the |
correct |
ones, |
set |
qualification limits, |
and |
enforce |
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compliance with those limits. The end users of the product have the responsibility to use the item correctly. Products must be used in accordance with their listing for certification to be effective.
Product certification is often required in sensitive industry and marketplace areas where a failure could have serious consequences, such as negatively effecting the health and welfare of the people or person using that product. For example, certification is stringent in aerospace applications, since the demands for low weight tend to lead to high stress on components, requiring appropriate metallurgy and accuracy in manufacturing. Other sensitive product area examples include food, pharmaceuticals, healthcare products, dangerous goods, and products which have RF emissions such as computers and cellular telephones.
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The process for certification of a product is generally summed up in four steps:
·Application (including testing of the product)
·Evaluation (does the test data indicate that the product meets qualification criteria)
·Decision (does a second review of the product application concur with the Evaluation)
·Surveillance (does the product in the marketplace continue to meet qualification criteria)
In many instances, prior to applying for certification, a product
supplier will send a product to a testing laboratory (some certification schemes require the product to be sent out for testing by the product certifier instead). When the product to be certified is received at the testing laboratory, it is tested in accordance with the laboratory's internal procedures and with the methods listed in the test standards specified by the certification scheme. The resulting data collected by
the testing laboratory, and is then forwarded either back to the manufacturer, or directly to the product certifier.
The product certifier then reviews the product supplier's application information, including the testing data. If the certifier's evaluation concludes that the test data shows that the product meets all required criteria as listed in the certification scheme, and the decision maker(s) of the product certifier concur with the evaluation, then the product is deemed "certified" and is listed in a directory which the Product certifier is required to keep. ISO Guide 65 requires that the
final decision to grant or not grant certification be made only by a person or group of persons not involved in the evaluation of the product.
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Products often need periodic recertification, also known as
surveillance. This requirement is typically identified |
within |
the |
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certification scheme that the product is |
certified |
to. Certification |
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bodies may require product suppliers |
to perform some sort of |
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surveillance activity, such as pulling |
sample |
products |
from |
the |
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marketplace for testing, in order to |
maintain |
their |
"listed" or |
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"certified" status. Other examples of Surveillance activities |
include |
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surprise audits of the manufacturing |
plant, |
supervision of |
the |
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manufacturing and/or testing process, or a simple paperwork submittal from the supplier to the product certifier to ensure that the certified product has not changed. Other causes for recertification may include complaints issued against the product's functionality which would require removal from the marketplace, and expiration of the original
certification. These lists of examples are by no means all inclusive. |
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Some certification schemes, or the product certifiers |
which |
operate those Schemes, may require that the product supplier operate a |
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Quality Management System registered to ISO 9000, or |
that the |
testing be performed by a laboratory accredited to ISO 17025. The decision to set these requirements is most often made by the person or group which owns the Certification Scheme.
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Приложение
ЛЕКСИЧЕСКИЙ СПРАВОЧНИК
Клише для реферирования (английский язык)
The plan for rendering |
Some expressions to be used while render- |
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the article |
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The article is headlined… |
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1. Thetitle of thearticle |
The headline of the article I have read is… |
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The title of the article is … |
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The article under review is entitled… |
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2. The author of the article: |
The author of the article is… |
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The article is written by… |
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where and when the article |
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It was (is) published in the scientific journal |
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was |
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(book, etc)… |
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published. |
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It was (is) printed in … |
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The main idea of the article is…. The articleisabout…
The article is devoted to … The article deals with…
3. The main idea of the article The purpose of the article is to give some information on…
The aim of the article is to provide the reader with
some material( data) on…
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1. The author starts by telling thereader |
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about (that)… |
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The author writes ( states, stresses, thinks, |
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points out) that… |
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The article describes ( reads) |
The contents of the article. |
According to the article (text) author’s point |
of |
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Some facts, names, figures. |
view is… |
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2. Further (then) |
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the author reports ( says) that … |
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observes the course of events… |
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draws our attention to… |
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touches upon… |
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3. In conclusion the author says that… |
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shows that… |
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wants to conveythat… |
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describes that… |
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pays attention to… |
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comments |
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examines |
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I found the article |
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interesting / important / urgent |
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up-to-date |
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dull |
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of no value |
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too hard to understand |
Your opinion of the article |
I have got interested in the article (informa- |
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tion, data) |
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given in the article |
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I found nothing interesting for me in the |
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article |
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I am of the same opinion |
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I agree ( don’t agree) with the author |
Клише для устного реферирования (русский язык)
1.Статья (текст, книга, работа) под названием «…» посвящена…
2.Статья (текст, книга, работа) делится на ... основные
части.
3.Статья (текст, книга, работа) является вкладом в ....
4.Целью данной статьи (текст, книга, работа) является ....
5.Висследовании представлена картина ....
6.Статья (текст, книга, работа) дает (вводит) ....
7. Статья (текст, книга, работа) рисует реалистичную
картину....
8.Статья (текст, книга, работа) раскрывает проблему как ....
9.В статье (текст, книга, работа) указывается, что ....
10.В статье (текст, книга, работа) дается описание…
11.В статье рассматриваются ....
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12.Исследование содержит ... рисунки, ... цифры, ...
таблицы.
13.Сначала автор обращает наше внимание на…
14.Впервой части автор определяет ....
15.Первая часть (глава) посвящена ....
16.Вторая часть (глава) пытается прояснить ....
17.Третья часть (глава) показывает (представляет, рассматривает, изучает) ....
18. Четвертая часть (глава) содержит (изучае
подчеркивает) ....
19.Пятая часть (глава) посвящена ....
20.Шестая часть (глава) анализирует (описывает) ....
21.Автор рассматривает (обрисовывает в общих чертах, делает выводы, указывает) ....
22. Автор рассматривает (делает обзор, представляет, делает наброски)…
23.Автор анализирует, как ....
24.Автор исследует почему ....
25.Автор оговаривает, что ....
26.Автор упоминает ....
27.Автор считает (подчеркивает, подчеркивает), что ....
28.Автор продолжает обсуждать (исследовать) ....
29.Наконец, автор обрисовывает (представляет) ....
30.При рассмотрении проблемы автор указывает, что ....
31.По мнению автора ....
32.По словам автора ....
33.Автор использовал различные методы анализа, чтобы сделать вывод, что ....
34.В заключительной части статьи подчеркивается ...
35.Автор обращает внимание на тот факт, что...
36.Автор подводит итоги ....
37.Подводя итог автор ....
38.В конце статьи автор подводит итог ....
39.Автор предупреждает, что ....
40.Автор приводит аргумент о том, что ....
41.Оценивая ситуацию, можно сделать вывод, что ....
42.Резюме на английском языке прилагаются к статье (текст, книга, работа).
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