History and Social Science. Учебное пособие

SELF-WORK III

The gift of giving

The tradition of giving gifts is common to all cultures throughout history. Present giving is important to strengthen our relationship with family and friends on important days like birthdays, anniversaries, and religious festivals.

There is a traditional ceremony with native cultures in North America called ‘potlatch’. This is a ceremony to celebrate important events in the community, where the host gives a large number of gifts to the guests. The family that gives the most presents has the highest status.

Potlatch gifts are typically expensive or practical goods, traditional objects such as woolen blankets and jewelry, and food that can be kept in store.

Some psychologists say it is often the person who gives the present who benefits most because of the pleasure they get from giving a gift that they know will please someone. This could be because it’s very personal or something they know the person will really like. For example, one man climbed a tree to get a bird’s egg that matched his girlfriend’s blue eyes.

Another example is a personalized calendar with family photos showing important family events from the previous year.

However, giving a present which isn’t very personal, or which isn’t wrapped nicely can make the receiver feel they are not important. One woman said she knew her marriage was over when her husband gave her a gift in a brown grocery bag.

It’s important to be careful when choosing gifts. In most cultures there are some things which it is not a good idea to give as presents. For example, in some cultures, sharp objects like knives or scissors mean the end of a friendship or relationship, so these are not suitable as gifts. In China, clocks are not an appropriate gift because the Chinese word for ‘clock’ sounds like the word for ‘death’. In the UK handkerchiefs are popular gifts, but they’re not a good present in some parts of the Middle East because it would be considered disrespectful.

In some cultures, it’s not just what you give, but how you give and receive it. In many Asian countries, it’s polite to refuse the present three times before accepting it. The person who gives the present will probably say that ‘it’s nothing’ even when it’s obviously expensive. It’s not polite to open a present immediately

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or when the giver is there. In this way, there’s no chance of embarrassing the giver or the receiver if it is not an appropriate present.

1.Find a word in the text which means the following. 1) to make strong (paragraph 1) _______

2) someone who invites people to a meal or party (paragraph 2) _______

3) useful or suitable, not just attractive (paragraph 2) _______

4) to get an advantage from something (paragraph 3) _______

5) covered with something such as paper or cloth (paragraph 4) ______

6) to say that you do not want what someone offers you (paragraph 6) ______

2.Circle the correct words needed to complete the sentences below with information from the text.

1) ‘Potlatch’ is a ceremony where host gives / guests give a large number of gifts to the host / guests.

2) Some psychologists say it if often the person who gives / receives the present who benefits most / least.

3) They say someone could get pleasure from giving something personal / expensive or something they know the person will really need / like.

4) Giving a present which isn’t very big / nicely wrapped can make the receiver feel they are not important.

5) In some cultures, giving sharp objects like knives or scissors means the beginning / end of a relationship.

6) It’s not a good idea to give a clock in China / some parts of the Middle East or a handkerchief in China / some parts of the Middle East.

7) In many Asian countries, it’s polite / rude to refuse a present three times before accepting / opening it.

8) In many Asian countries, it’s polite / not polite to open a present immediately.

3.Some phrases are followed by the infinitive with to (to do) and others with the –ing form (doing). Complete the phrases below using the correct form of the verb in brackets.

1) The tradition of _______ (give) gifts is common to all cultures.

2) Giving presents is important ______ (strengthen) our relationships.

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3)However, ______ (give) a present which isn’t very personal can make a person feel they are not important.

4)In some cultures, it is not a good idea ______ (give) sharp objects as presents.

5)In many Asian countries it’s not polite ______ (open) a present when the giver is there.

4. Can you find and correct the common mistakes speakers make?

1)My birthday is on January.

2)He likes read books and play the guitar.

3)I have two brothers, Maria and Juan.

4)Can you borrow me a book please?

5)He won two millions of Euros in the lottery.

6)She drinks much coffee every day.

7)I practice football every Saturday.

8)He doesn’t have nothing to do.

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MODULE IV

PSYCHOLOGY

Warming-up questions.

1)Have you ever done psychological tests? Are you satisfied with the results? We're the results true to your mind?

2)Do you believe in horoscopes? Supernatural powers? Why/Why not?

3)Have you ever met the UFO or something supernatural? Would you like to meet them? Why? /Why not?

4)Do you think it's important to study psychology? For what purposes can people need to study psychology?

5)Have you ever had to deal with psychologists? Was the experience positive or negative?

Psychology

Part I.

Contemporary psychology is interested in an enormous range of topics, looking at human behavior and mental process from the neural level to the cultural level. Psychologists study human issues that begin before birth and continue until death. While psychology did not emerge as a separate discipline until the late 1800s, its earliest history can be traced back to Egypt, Greece, China, Persia, and India. In the 17th century, the French philosopher Rene Descartes introduced the idea of dualism, which asserted that the mind and body were two entities that interact to form the human experience.

While early philosophers relied on methods such as observation and logic, today’s psychologists utilize scientific methodologies to study and draw conclusions about human thought and behavior. Physiology also contributed to psychology’s eventual emergence as a scientific discipline. Early physiological research on the brain and behavior had a dramatic impact on psychology, ultimately contributing to applying scientific methodologies to the study of human thought and behavior.

During the mid-1800s, a German physiologist named Wilhelm Wundt was using scientific research methods to investigate reaction times. His book, published in 1873, “Principles of Physiological Psychology”, outlined many of

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the major connections between the science of physiology and the study of human thought and behavior.

He later opened the world’s first psychology lab in 1879 at the University of Leipzig. This event is generally considered the official start of psychology as a separate and distinct scientific discipline.

He perceived the subject as the study of human consciousness and sought to apply experimental methods to studying internal mental processes. While his use of a process known as introspection is seen as unreliable and unscientific today, his early work in psychology helped set the stage for future experimental methods.

An estimated 17,000 students attended Wundt’s psychology lectures, and hundreds more pursued degrees in psychology and studied in his psychology lab. While his influence dwindled as the field matured, his impact on psychology is unquestionable.

Edward B. Titchener, one of Wundt’s most famous students, would go on to found psychology’s first major school of thought – Structuralism. According to the structuralists, human consciousness could be broken down into smaller parts. Using a process known as introspection, trained subjects would attempt to break down their responses and reactions to the most basic sensation and perceptions.

While structuralism is notable for its emphasis on scientific research, its methods were unreliable, limiting, and subjective. When Titchener died in 1927, structuralism essentially died with him.

Psychology flourished in America during the midto late-1800s. William James emerged as one of the major American psychologists during this period and publishing his classic textbook, “The Principles of Psychology”, established him as the father of American psychology. His book soon became the standard text in psychology and his ideas eventually served as the basis for a new school of thought known as functionalism.

The focus of functionalism was about how behavior actually works to help people live in their environment. Functionalists utilized methods such as direct observation to study the human mind and behavior.

Both of these early schools of thought emphasized human consciousness, but their conceptions of it were significantly different. While the structuralists

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sought to break down mental processes into their smallest parts, the functionalists believed that consciousness existed as a more continuous and changing process.

While functionalism quickly faded as a separate school of thought, it would go on to influence later psychologists and theories of human thought and behavior. Up to this point, early psychology stressed conscious human experience. An Austrian physician named Sigmund Freud changed the face of psychology in a dramatic way, proposing a theory of personality that emphasized the importance of the unconscious mind.

Freud’s clinical work with patients suffering from hysteria and other ailments led him to believe that early childhood experiences and unconscious impulses contributed to the development of adult personality and behavior.

In his book The Psychopathology of Everyday Life, Freud detailed how these unconscious thoughts and impulses are expressed, often through slips of the tongue and dreams. According to Freud, psychological disorders are the result of these unconscious conflicts becoming extreme or unbalanced.

The psychoanalytic theory proposed by Sigmund Freud had a tremendous impact on 20th-century thought, influencing the mental health field as well as other areas, including art, literature, and popular culture. While many of his ideas are viewed with skepticism today, his influence on psychology is undeniable.

(Abridged from The Origins of Psychology: History Through the Years)

1. Read the text and answer the questions.

1)How did psychology originate? When did it begin?

2)Who were the people responsible for establishing psychology as a separate science?

3)Why is it important to study History of psychology?

4)Is psychology really a science?

5)Should psychologists use research to influence public policy, education, and other aspects of human behavior?

6)Should psychology focus on observable behaviors, or on internal mental processes?

7)What research methods should be used to study psychology?

8)Which topics and issues should psychology be concerned with?

9)What is functionalism?

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10)What contribution did the Austrian physician Sigmund Freud do in the history of the world psychiatry?

11)Who is the father of American psychology?

12)What is the main idea of Sigmund Freud’s method?

2. Find in the text the Russian and the English equivalents to the following words and phrases.

Let’s discuss!

These are the cases for you to organize the discussions or conferences. Use any sources to find the information and think over the answers, then prepare small talks for each question and present them before your groupmates.

1)Why do you think psychology is so popular today? Why do many people try to get a degree in psychology? Where can a person work being a specialist in psychology?

2)Who of famous people has psychological problems? How did they manage to solve their problems? Do you think it’s a good idea to visit psychologists if you have problems? Have you ever met psychologists at school? What are your impressions of this meeting?

3)What famous specialists in psychology do you know? What do you think about profiling? Do you think the method of profiling is reliable? Why? Why not?

4)What is the difference between psychology and psychiatry? Can a specialist in psychology work as psychiatry? Why? Why not?

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Text II.

The fields of psychology.

Psychology changed dramatically during the early 20th century as another school of thought known as behaviorism rose to dominance. Behaviorism was a major change from previous theoretical perspectives, rejecting the emphasis on both the conscious and unconscious mind. Instead, behaviorism strove to make psychology a more scientific discipline by focusing purely on observable behavior.

Behaviorism had its earliest start with the work of a Russian physiologist named Ivan Pavlov. Pavlov's research on the digestive systems of dogs led to his discovery of the classical conditioning process, which proposed that behaviors could be learned via conditioned associations. Pavlov demonstrated that this learning process could be used to make an association between a neutral environmental stimulus and a naturally occurring stimulus.

The impact of behaviorism was enormous, and this school of thought continued to dominate for the next 50 years. While behaviorism eventually lost its dominant grip on psychology, the basic principles of behavioral psychology are still widely in use today.

Therapeutic techniques such as behavior analysis, behavioral modification, and token economies are often utilized to help children learn new skills and overcome maladaptive behaviors, while conditioning is used in many situations ranging from parenting to education.

While the first half of the 20th century was dominated by psychoanalysis and behaviorism, a new school of thought known as humanistic psychology emerged during the second half of the century. Often referred to as the “third force” in psychology, this theoretical perspective emphasized conscious experiences.

American psychologist Carl Rogers is often considered to be one of the founders of this school of thought. While psychoanalysts looked at unconscious impulses and behaviorists focused on environmental causes, Rogers believed strongly in the power of free will and self-determination.

Psychologist Abraham Maslow also contributed to humanistic psychology with his famous hierarchy of needs theory of human motivation. This theory suggests that people are motivated by increasingly complex needs. Once the most basic needs are fulfilled, people become motivated to pursue higher-level needs.

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During the 1950s and 1960s, a movement known as the cognitive revolution began to take hold in psychology. During this time, cognitive psychology began to replace psychoanalysis and behaviorism as the dominant approach to the study of psychology. Psychologists were still interested in looking at observable behaviors, but they were also concerned with what was going on inside the mind.

Since that time, cognitive psychology has remained a dominant area of psychology as researchers continue to study things such as perception, memory, decision-making, problem-solving, intelligence, and language.

Psychology has continued to evolve since 1960 and new ideas and perspectives have been introduced. Recent research in psychology looks at many aspects of the human experience, from the biological influences on behavior on the impact of social and cultural factors.

Today, the majority of psychologists do not identify themselves with a single school of thought. Instead, they often focus on a particular specialty area or perspective, often drawing on ideas from a range of theoretical backgrounds. This eclectic approach has contributed new ideas and theories that will continue to shape psychology for years to come.

(Abridged from The Origins of Psychology: History Through the Years)

1. Answer the questions to the text.

1)How did psychoanalysis influence the field of psychology?

2)What makes psychology different from philosophy?

3)How did Wundt view psychology?

4)What is cognitive psychology?

5)What is behaviorism?

6)What do psychological researchers continue to study?

7)In what way did psychologist Abraham Maslow contribute to psychology?

8)Who is Carl Rogers?

2. Correct the following statements.

1)Psychology changed during the late 19th century.

2)Behaviorism started with works of Russian physiologist Vavilov.

3)Pavlov’s research led to the discovery of a new teaching method.

4)The influence of behaviorism was insignificant.

5)Therapeutic techniques are used to make children to attend classes.

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6)Behaviorism is often called the “third force” in psychology.

7)Abraham Maslow is famous for his hierarchy of duties theory.

8)Cognitive psychology was replaced with psychoanalysis.

3. Find the Russian and the English equivalents in the text.

Let’s discuss!

These are the cases for you to organize the discussions or conferences. Use any sources to find the information and think over the answers, then prepare small talks for each question and present them before your groupmates.

1)What is happiness? What factors influence the level of a person’s happiness? What products make people to feel happy? What are the happiest memories in your life? What type of future is happy for you?

2)What are the sources of success? Are you successful? What successful events took place in your life? What do you need to be successful student?

3)Are you superstitious? Do you believe in supernatural forces? Do you believe in horoscopes? Can you remember the situation in your life when something mysterious happened? Have you ever used any superstitious beliefs concerning studying and examinations?

4)Do you believe in ghosts? Do you like to read stories about haunted houses, witches, demons, bogies, and other creatures? Have you ever met UFOs? Would you like to meet some unusual creatures?

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